AP Psych Unit 1.5 Terms

consciousness

Our subjective awareness of ourselves and our environment.

cognitive neuroscience

The interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language).

dual processing

The principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks.

blindsight

A condition in which a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it.

parallel processing

Processing many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain’s natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with sequential processing.

sequential processing

Processing one aspect of a problem at a time; generally used to process new information or to solve difficult problems when focused attention is required.

sleep

A periodic, natural loss of consciousness

circadian rhythm

Our biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of wakefulness and body temperature) that occur on a 24-hour cycle.

REM sleep

Rapid eye movement sleep; a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active.

alpha waves

The relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state.

NREM sleep

Non-rapid eye movement sleep; encompasses all sleep stages except for REM sleep.

hallucinations

False sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus.

hypnagogic sensations

Felt during the NREM-1 sleep stage, these are bizarre experiences, such as jerking or a feeling of falling or floating weightlessly.

delta waves

The large, slow brain waves associated with deep NREM-3 sleep.

suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)

A pair of cell clusters in the hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythm. In response to light, the SCN causes the pineal gland to adjust melatonin production, thus modifying our feelings of sleepiness.

insomnia

Recurring problems in falling or staying asleep.

narcolepsy

A sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times.

sleep apnea

A sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings.

REM sleep behavior disorder

A sleep disorder in which the muscle paralysis that normally occurs during REM sleep is incomplete or absent, allowing the person to ‘act out’ their dreams.

dream

A sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person’s mind.

Sigmund Freud

Famous for his psychoanalytic theory, which emphasized the exploration of the unconscious mind and dream analysis as a pathway to understanding psychological conflicts.

REM rebound

The tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation (created by repeated awakenings during REM sleep).

sensation

The process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment.

sensory receptors

Specialized neurons that detect specific forms of energy (e.g., light, sound, touch) and convert them into neural signals.

perception

The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events.

bottom-up processing

Analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain’s integration of sensory information.

top-down processing

Information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations.

transduction

The conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brain can interpret.

psychophysics

The study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them.

absolute threshold

The minimum stimulus energy needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time.

signal detection theory

A theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amidst background stimulation (noise). Assumes no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person’s experience, expectations, motivation, and and alertness.

subliminal

Below one’s absolute threshold for conscious awareness.

priming

The activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one’s perception, memory, or response.

difference threshold

The minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time. We experience it as a just noticeable difference (JND).

Weber’s law

The principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount).

sensory adaptation

Diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation.

wavelength

The distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next. Electromagnetic wavelengths vary from the short blips of cosmic rays to the long pulses of radio transmission.

hue

The dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names blue, green, and so forth.

intensity

The amount of energy in a light wave or sound wave, which influences what we perceive as brightness or loudness. ______ is determined by the wave’s amplitude (height).

cornea

The eye’s clear, protective outer layer, covering the pupil and iris.

pupil

The adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters.

iris

A ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening.

lens

The transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina.

retina

The light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information.

accommodation

The process by which the eye’s lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina.

rods

Retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision,

cones

Retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. The ____ detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations.

optic nerve

The nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain.

blind spot

The point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a _____ because no receptor cells are located there.

fovea

The central focal point in the retina, around which the eye’s cones cluster.

Trichromatic theory

The theory that the retina contains three different color receptors

opponent-process theory

The theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green.

feature detectors

Nerve cells in the brain’s visual cortex that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement.

parallel processing

Processing many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain’s natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with sequential processing.

audition

The sense or act of hearing.

frequency

The number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time.

pitch

A tone’s experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency.

middle ear

The chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea’s oval window.

cochlea

A coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear; sound waves traveling through the cochlear fluid trigger nerve impulses.

inner ear

The innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs.

sensorineural hearing loss

Hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea’s receptor cells or to the auditory nerves; also called nerve deafness.

conduction hearing loss

A less common form of hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea.

cochlear implant

A device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea.

place theory

In hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea’s membrane is stimulated.

frequency theory

In hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch. Also called volleyball theory.

gate-control theory

The theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological “gate” that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. The ___ is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain.

gustation

The sense of taste.

olfaction

The sense of smell.

kinesthesis

Our sense of the position and movement of our body parts.

vestibular sense

Our sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance.

sensory interaction

The principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste.

embodied cognition

In psychological science, the influence of bodily sensations, gestures, and other states on cognitive preferences and judgments.