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Central Nervous System
Brain and spinal cord
Peripheral
Everything else
Somatic Nervous System
Controls voluntary behaviors (ex. movement)
Autonomic Nervous System
Controls involuntary behaviors (ex. digestion, heart rate, respiration)
Sympathetic Nervous System
Use energy (fight or flight)
Parasympathetic Nervous System
Conserve energy (rest and digest)
Hindbrain subdivision(s)
Myelencephalon and Metencephalon
Medulla
Located in Myelencephalon
Oversees vital life functions such as respiration and heartrate
Pons
Located in Metencephalon
Involved in sleep/wake cycles, influences level of arousal
Major location of serotonin
Cerebellum
Located in Metencephalon
“little brain”
Posture and balance, execution and timing of movements, procedural memory
Ballistic movements (require immediate energy)
Midbrain subdivision(s)
Mesencephalon
Tectum
Located in mesencephalon
Superior (on top) and inferior (on bottom) colliculi
Superior Colliculi
Coordinates eye movement and head movement
Inferior colliculi
Coordinates movement with audition
Tegmentum
Located in mescencephalon
Contains the substantia nigra, periaqueductal gray, and ventral tegmental area
Substantia nigra
Refines voluntary movement
Periaqueductal gray
Processes pain signals, freezing behavior
Ventral tegmental area
Beginning of the pleasure pathway
Forebrain subdivision(s)
Diencephalon and telencephalon
Thalamus
Located in diencephalon
Every sensory system first has to go through here
Central relay system for sensory systems
Does not include olfaction (smell)
Hypothalamus
Located in diencephalon
Communicate with endocrine system
Fighting, Fleeing, Feeding, Sex
Limbic Sytem
Located in telencephalon
Role in emotions
Striatum
Located in telencephalon
Initiation and maintenance of movement, Associative learning
Cortex (neocortex)
Located in telencephalon
Newest part of the brain
2-4 mm thick
25 billion neurons
Wrinkles
The central hemisphere includes:
Left and right brain
Contralateral projection/reception
Opposite sides, left part of the body is controlled by right hemisphere, right part of the body is controlled by left hemisphere
Ipsilateral
Same side
Corpus Callosum
Thick band of fibers that connects the two hemispheres of the brain
Spatial Neglect Syndrome
Damage to the right hemisphere
Patients fail to attention to their visual field
Frontal lobe
Differs us from other species
Controls reasoning and planning
Contains the Primary Motor Cortex (M1)
Broca’s area - language production, grammar and pronunciation
Occipital lobe
Primary visual area
Visual association areas - identify objects, places, faces, and movement
Temporal lobe
Audition (sound), some types of memories
Wernicke’s area - language comprehension, works with Broca’s area
Parietal lobe
Receives signals from senses
Primary somatosensory cortex
Organized the same as the motor cortex
Visual agnosia
Inability to identify objects
Facial agnosia
Inability to recognize faces
Phineas Gage
Damage to frontal cortex, entire personality changed
Where is Cerebrospinal fluid produced?
Choroid plexus
What are all neurons surrounded by?
Cerebrospinal fluid
What contains the choroid plexus?
Lateral ventricles
Where does CSF drain?
Through the foramen of Monroe
What is wiring transmission?
NT crosses synapse and acts on ligand-gated receptors of post-synaptic dendrite causing EPSP (excitation) or IPSP (inhibition)
What are reuptake transporters?
Specialized proteins on the pre-synaptic terminal button pulls NT back into the pre-synaptic terminal button and recycles it
Enzymatic degradation
Specialized enzymes break down NT
Each enzyme has its own specific enzyme
Pre-synaptic auto receptors
Receptors located on the pre-synaptic terminal button
Stop any further release of NTs, neutralize AP
Volume Transmission
NTs float away from synapse and act on distant receptors
Ionotropic receptor
Ion channel is located inside the receptor
The NT binds to the receptor, the ion channel opens, ions move in or out of the cell
Metabotropic receptor
The Ion channel is located distantly in the cell wall
Slower transmission
Monoamine transmitter(s)
Dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin
Amino Acid(s)
Glutamine, GABA
Peptide(s)
Opioids
Gas(es)
NO, CO
Lipid(s)
Anandamide
Two main ingredients of Acetycholine
Acetyl Co-A and Choline
What enzyme removes “Co-A” and joins Acetyl and Choline together in Acetycholine synthesis
Choline Acetyltransferase
What enzyme degrades excess Acetylcholine?
Acetylcholine esterase
Acetylcholine receptor(s)
Nictonic and Muscarinic
What do nicotinic and muscarinic receptors do?
Command muscles to move, flex, and relax
What is curare?
A paralytic drug, enters bloodstream and blockades all nicotinic receptors
What is sarin gas?
A chemical warfare agent
Inhibits acetylcholine esterase
Causes death within a few minutes
Where is acetylcholine located in the brain?
Cell bodies (soma’s) in nucleus basalis
Project to cortex
Where is acetylcholine located outside the brain?
Autonomic nervous system
Neuromuscular junctions, create synapses with the muscles
The behavioral functions of acetylcholine?
Movement
Learning and some types of movement/
What is the Morris Water Maze (MWM)?
Acetylcholine antagonists are given to animals and put them through experiments
What are the nucleus basalis of Maynert?
Cell bodies that produce Acetylcholine
The first structure lost in Alzeheimer’s
Catecholamine(s)
Dopamine and Norepinephrine
Indolamine(s)
Serotonin
What does Dopamine synthesis start with?
Tyrosine
What enzyme converts Tyrosine into Dopa in Dopamine synthesis?
Tyrosine hydroxylase
What enzyme converts Dopa into Dopamine?
Dopa decarboxylase
How many receptors does Dopamine have?
5, and they are all metabotropic
What is special about the dopamine reuptake transporters?
Drugs of abuse can increase dopamine activity
What enzyme(s) degrade dopamine?
Monomaine oxidase and catechol-o-methyl transferase
What dopaminergic pathway(s) are there
Nigro-striatal, Meso-cortical, meso-limbic
What is the nigro-striatal pathway?
Originate in substantia nigra
Axons project and terminal buttons release dopamine in striatum
Cause movement
What is the meso-cortical pathway?
Originate in tegmental area
Axons project and release dopamine in cortex
Cause motivation, emotion, executive function
What is the meso-limbic pathway?
Originate in the ventral tegmental area
Release dopamine in the nucleus accumbus
Cause pleasure/displeasure
Does Noreprinephrine start with the same synthesis as Dopamine?
Yes
What enzyme converts dopamine into noreprinephrine?
Dopamine-beta-hydoxylase
Noreprinephrine receptor(s)
5 metabotropic receptors
2 are alpha
3 are beta
What is special about Noreprinephrine reuptake transporters?
Some antidepressants can blockade them
Do the same enzymes that degrade dopamine also degrade norepinephrine?
Yes
Where is Noreprinephrine located?
In the CNS
Where is the main place to produce norepinephrine?
The Raphe nuclei of Pons and Medulla
Where does the locus coeruleus project norepinephrine into?
Coretx, hippocampus, hypothalamus, spinal cord
What behavioral effects does Norepinephrine have?
Arousal and vigilance/attention
Stimulate the autonomic nervous system, heartrate
Cognition such as thought processes, memory consolidation
Attention disorders and mood disorders
What does Serotonin synthesis begin with?
Tryptophan
What enzyme converts tryptophan into 5-hydroxytryptophan (5-HTP)?
Tryptophan hydroxylase
What enzyme converts 5-HTP into serotonin (5-HT)?
5-HTP decarboxylase
Serotonin receptor(s)
7, all but one are metabotropic
What is special about serotonin reuptake transporters?
They are selective
What enzyme degrades serotonin?
Monoamine oxidase
What cell body pathways are included in serotonin?
Dorsal raphe nucleus
Median raphe nucleus
Where does Serotonin project into?
cortex
caudate putamen
nucleus accumbus
thalamus and hypothalamus
limbic system such as the hippocampus, amygdala, septal area
Serotonin behavioral functions
Sleep/wake cycles
Mood
Aggression
Types of Amino acids
Glutamate and y-amino-butyric acid (GABA)
Is gultamate excitatory or inhibitory?
excitatory
Is GABA excitatory or inhibitory?
Inhibitory
What are the glutamate receptors?
3 ionotropic receptors:
Kainate, AMPA, NMDA
8 metabotropic receptors:
Family I: #1 and 5
Family II: #2 and 3
Family III: #4, 5, 6, 7, 8
What are the GABA receptors?
GABA-A
Ionotropic
Gaba-B
metabotropic
What does amino acid synthesis begin with?
Glial Cells (astrocytes)
Note 
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