Unit 2 Cognition Vocab AP Psych

Perception

The process of interpreting and organizing sensory information so the brain can make sense of it using both incoming stimuli and past experiences.

Bottom-Up Processing

Perception that starts with raw sensory input and builds upward into a full perception without relying on prior knowledge.

Top-Down Processing

Perception guided by expectations, knowledge, and schemas, allowing the brain to fill in gaps.

Schema

A mental framework used to organize and interpret information based on past experience.

Perceptual Set

A predisposition to perceive something in a particular way based on expectations or prior experience.

Gestalt Psychology

Emphasizes perceiving whole patterns rather than individual parts (“the whole is greater than the sum of its parts”).

Closure

A Gestalt principle where the mind fills in gaps to complete incomplete images.

Figure–Ground

Distinguishing the main object (figure) from the background (ground).

Proximity

Objects close together are perceived as grouped.

Similarity

Objects that look alike are grouped together.

Attention

Focusing awareness on specific stimuli while ignoring others.

Cocktail Party Effect

Focusing on one conversation while filtering out background noise; noticing your name across a room.

Inattentional Blindness

Failing to notice visible objects because attention is elsewhere.

Change Blindness

Failing to notice changes in the environment due to divided attention.

Binocular Depth Cues

Depth cues requiring both eyes.

Retinal Disparity

Slight differences between each eye’s image; greater disparity indicates closer objects.

Convergence

Eyes turning inward for close objects; the degree of strain signals distance.

Monocular Depth Cues

Depth cues that only require one eye (e.g., size, clarity, linear perspective).

Relative Clarity

Clearer objects appear closer; hazier objects seem farther away.

Relative Size

Smaller retinal images are perceived as farther away.

Texture Gradient

Detailed textures appear close; less detail appears farther away.

Linear Perspective

Parallel lines appear to converge in the distance.

Interposition

An object blocking another is perceived as closer.

Perceptual Constancy

Perceiving objects as unchanging in size, shape, color, or brightness despite changes in sensory input.

Apparent Movement

Illusion of movement created by rapidly flashing still images (phi phenomenon).

Concepts

Mental groupings of similar objects, events, or ideas.

Prototypes

The best example or mental image of a category.

Schemas

Cognitive frameworks used to organize and interpret information.

Assimilation

Interpreting new information using existing schemas.

Accommodation

Changing or creating schemas to fit new information.

Algorithm

A step-by-step, guaranteed procedure for solving a problem.

Heuristic

A mental shortcut used to make quick decisions; not always accurate.

Representativeness Heuristic

Judging something based on how well it matches a prototype.

Availability Heuristic

Judging likelihood based on how easily examples come to mind.

Mental Set

Tendency to use strategies that worked in the past, even when they are no longer effective.

Priming

Exposure to one stimulus influences response to another.

Framing

How information is presented affects decisions (e.g., “90% survival” vs. “10% death rate”).

Gambler’s Fallacy

Belief that past random events affect future outcomes when they do not.

Sunk Cost Fallacy

Continuing an action because resources were already invested, even when it’s no longer beneficial.

Executive Functions

Cognitive processes like planning, working memory, inhibition, and decision-making.

Creativity

Ability to generate new and valuable ideas.

Divergent Thinking

Producing many possible ideas; associated with creativity.

Convergent Thinking

Narrowing down to one correct answer.

Functional Fixedness

Inability to see new uses for objects; limits problem-solving.

Intelligence

Ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and adapt to new situations.

General Intelligence (g)

A general cognitive ability that influences performance across many tasks.

Intelligence Quotient (IQ)

A score comparing mental age to chronological age (MA/CA × 100); modern tests assign 100 as average.

Mental Age

A measure of intelligence based on the typical performance of people at a given age.

Chronological Age

A person’s actual age in years.

Intelligence Tests

Assessments that measure mental aptitudes compared to others using numerical scores.

Psychometric

The field focused on measuring mental traits using standardized tests.

Standardized

Administering and scoring a test uniformly for all test-takers.

Validity

The extent to which a test measures what it claims to measure.

Construct Validity

How well a test represents the theoretical concept it’s intended to measure.

Predictive Validity

How well a test predicts future performance.

Reliability

Consistency of test results across time or forms.

Test–Retest Reliability

Taking the same test twice yields similar scores.

Split-Half Reliability

Scores on two halves of the same test correlate highly.

Stereotype Threat

Fear of confirming a negative stereotype harms performance.

Stereotype Lift

Individuals not targeted by a stereotype perform better when others are stereotyped.

Flynn Effect

The worldwide rise in average IQ scores over generations.

Poverty Discrimination

Unfair treatment of people based on socioeconomic status.

Achievement Tests

Measure current knowledge or skills.

Aptitude Tests

Predict future performance or potential.

Fixed Mindset

Belief that abilities are innate and cannot change much.

Growth Mindset

Belief that abilities improve with effort and learning.