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Chapter 2 | Geographic Inquiry: Data, Tools, and Technology
2.1 Thinking Like a Geographer: The Geo-Inquiry Process
Thinking Like a Geographer
Geographers think spatially in terms of space, place, arrangement, and interconnections between humans and the environment.
Geographic thinking requires:
Asking questions
Collecting and organizing data
Making connections
Presenting data in a usable way.
Tools such as maps, globes, graphs, photographs, and satellite imagery provide geographers with vast amounts of data to be analyzed.
The Geo-Inquiry Process
The Geo-Inquiry question is the core of the entire process: Why did it (any given phenomena) happen?
Not only do geographers strive to understand where something is, or when something happened, but paramount to those understandings (and following them, as a next level of inquiry) is why.
Identifying and gathering the data you need to answer the Geo-Inquiry question is the second step.
As in any scientific process, the evidence derived from the data you collect will be chosen based on relevancy to the topic or issue.
Information about both site and situation are important to consider, as well as time and how factors relating to your inquiry may be affected in the future, or were affected, historically.
There are many ways to survey and/or collect data about your geographic inquiry.
The next step is to visualize the gathered data.
Think about the visuals that would help others better understand the issue and resulting actions that can be taken.
Visualizations of data can be used to skew someone’s perception of data.
The next step is to create, organizing your data and evidence in a contextualizing format.
The final step is to act. Present the gathered information to decision-makers or those with impact upon your inquiry.
The Geo-Inquiry Process is a five-step method: Ask, collect, visualize, create, act.
2.2 Geographic Data and Tools
Collecting data
Geographers use a variety of methods for collecting data.
Geographic information is any data with a location tied to it.
Data collected through the many methods geographers use are either…
Quantitative: Involving data that can be measured by numbers
Qualitative: Involving data that is descriptive of a research subject and is often based on people's opinions.
Quantitative data is objective and numerical, such as populations (of people or things.)
Qualitative data is an interpretation or is subjective.
Skills involved in analyzing quantitative and qualitative data involve seeking patterns, relationships, and connections.
The data geographers collect has to be at the appropriate scale and align to the nature of the research questions.
Data could be collected from a number of sources. This eliminates skew or bias as much as possible.
It is important to consider all perspectives when gathering data. A perspective cannot be neglected if it does not align with personal belief.
Who Collects Data?
Countless organizations, both public and private, collect and analyze data. Such as the U.S. Census Bureau.
Census: An official count of the number of people in a defined area, such as a state
The Census Bureau does not only count people. It also conducts surveys on things such as the economy, agriculture, educational attainment, employment, income, language proficiency, migration, housing, and elections.
Data gathering takes multiple forms, such as written surveys or in-person or phone interviews that gather information about people and their experiences.
Geographic Information Systems
Geospatial technologies encompass the modern tools used to analyze data about specific locations across the globe.
Geographic information system (GIS): A computer system that allows for the collection, organization, and display of geographic data for analysis.
GIS data can be used for simple maps or complex, layered ones.
Such maps are created by organizing layers of information to form a combined image.
Each type of information is stored in a separate layer that represents a specific theme and dataset
A wide range of spatial data is easily compared and analyzed using GIS, such as elevation or…
Topography: The representation of earth's surface to show natural and man-made features, especially their relative positions and elevations.
It can also display demographic information about the people who live in a certain place.
Combining the data from these layers makes it easy for geographers to make connections.
GIS maps support geovisualization, which is the process of creating visuals for geographic analysis using maps, graphs, and multimedia.
Geospatial technologies collect and analyze immense amounts of data leading to a revolution in spatial decision-making.
The geospatial revolution encompasses nearly every aspect of human life.
Today, in an instant, individuals and organizations can send, receive, and broadcast information about where they are, where they have been, and where they are going.
Maps created out of this geospatial data have a wide variety of uses.
Other Remote Sensing Tools
A variety of geospatial technologies gather data; some do so remotely, or without making physical contact.
Remote sensing: A method of collecting or analyzing data from a location without making physical contact
Satellites take images of sections of Earth at regular intervals to determine changes that occur on the surface.
Comparing satellite images can help identify phenomena such as trends in urban development or the shrinking of the polar ice caps.
Remote sensors mounted on aircraft or drones are another source of data.
As technology advances and becomes less expensive, drones are making remotely-sensed data more accessible than ever.
Global positioning system (GPS): A network of satellites that orbit Earth and transmit location data to receivers, enabling users to pinpoint their exact location
The accuracy of the information allows people to determine the precise distance between two points, making GPS especially useful for navigation purposes.
GPS is used for several geospatial applications beyond GIS.
This amount of data can actually become a challenge because of how over-saturated the research community is with the sheer amount of data.
Now internet-based supercomputer systems are being developed to help geographers manage, analyze, and share this data.
2.3 Understanding Maps
Mapmaking
Maps are the fundamental tool most uniquely identified with geography.
People have used maps to depict information for thousands of years, and they continue to use increasingly sophisticated maps today.
Maps come in all shapes, sizes, and formats, and have a wide variety of uses and purposes. One of the most common uses of maps is to locate something, but nowhere close to the only use.
Cartographer: A person who creates maps
Patterns in our world are seldom random; spatial features tend to be clustered, dispersed, or linear.
Absolute distance: Distance that can be measured using a standard unit of length
Relative distance: Distance determined in relation to other places or objects
Absolute distance is a distance that can be measured using a standard unit of length.
Relative distance is measured in terms of other criteria such as time or money.
Absolute direction: The cardinal directions north, south, east, and west
Relative direction: Direction based on a person's perception, such as left, right, up, or down
As representations of the entire world or part of the world, maps are selective in the information they represent.
Mapmakers must decide how much of Earth to show and how to show it. These decisions are driven by the purpose of the map.
Maps can be used to show location, distance, other spatial relationships, or change.
It is important to evaluate maps critically by considering the source of the data and the intent of the cartographer.
Map Scale
Maps can show information at almost any scale.
Map scale: The relationship of the size of the map to the size of the area it represents on Earth's surface
This allows you to calculate absolute distance.
Usually represented in one of three ways: As a representative fraction, a written scale, or graphically.
The scale of a map is an important clue to the level of detail portrayed as well as the purpose of the map.
As the scale of analysis varies, so does the kind and amount of information shown on the map.
A certain pattern may be obvious at one scale, but as you zoom out, other patterns may become clear.
A large-scale map will, ironically, show a very small area.
The name comes from the fact that it shows a great amount of data and detail.
This may be a city map, where each street or even shop is labeled.
A medium-scale map has both a considerable degree of data as well as area. This may be something like a state or large county.
A small-scale map shows very little data but much area. This may be like a large country map.
Map Projections
Cartographers must find a way to represent the 3D object of the earth in a 2D format. Complete accuracy is impossible.
There are various ways the world has been depicted to try and solve this problem.
Different projections distort spatial relations in shape, area, direction, or distance.
Generally, to improve one factor, like the relative sizes of land masses, you must sacrifice another, like the shape.
The purpose of the map should guide the type of projection used.
Map Projection Types
Within the broad categories of projections, including conformal, cylindrical, and equal-area, are four common projection types: Robinson, Mercator, Gall-Peters, and azimuthal.
Each projection has advantages and limitations and distorts the sizes and shapes of Earth’s landmasses in different ways.
The Robinson projection has curved lines of longitude and straight lines of latitude, which means directions are true only along the parallels (including the equator) and the central meridian.
Its unique, globe-like appearance makes the Robinson projection useful for many different types of maps.
The Mercator and Gall-Peters projections show true direction, which is direction measured with reference to the north geographic pole.
These two projections are often used for navigation.
The Azimuthal projection is well-suited for maps of the Arctic and Antarctic.
Types of Maps
Reference map: A map that focuses on the location of places
Thematic map: Any map that focuses on one or more variables to show a relationship between geographic data
Reference maps illustrate the boundaries, names, and other unique identifiers of places and regions.
They focus on the location of geospatial elements such as countries, cities, lakes, and other features of a landscape.
Physical maps, which primarily show landforms and other natural features, and political maps, which primarily show boundaries between governmental units like countries or states, are examples of reference maps.
Reference maps often show absolute location in terms of latitude and longitude.
Thematic maps are maps focused on a particular topic or theme.
Thematic maps can show the distribution, flow, connection of, or relationship among one or more attributes.
Showing too many attributes on the same map can confuse its message.
Basemaps form the foundations of both reference and thematic maps.
Many thematic maps use a basemap showing coastlines, city locations, and political boundaries.
Most geographic data relates to specific points, lines, and areas. The way maps display these types of data affects the analysis.
Clusters are best illustrated in maps that use dots or graduated symbols.
Isoline maps connect data points of equal value, like elevation, temperature, or precipitation.
Choropleth maps use color or shading to display quantitative data in preset regions.
Graduated symbols represent differences in size or extent of something in an area. Greater numbers are represented by larger symbols.
A cartogram is a unique type of map that conveys information by making the areas on a map proportional to the variable being mapped.
2.4 The Power of Data
How Data is Used
Geographic data is used to help people understand problems, consider options that lead to making decisions, and measure the effects of those decisions.
Making Decisions with Geographic Data
Personal and Organizational Decision-Making
Geographic data influences where people decide to live, by a number of factors and metrics.
People in the market for a home consider its walkability, proximity to work, property taxes, crime statistics, school zones, floodplain or earthquake data, and other risks.
Businesses make location decisions in ways similar to individuals.
When deciding where to locate, businesses typically review demographic data on potential customers, the workforce, tax rates, and more.
Other groups seek to expand data related to quality of life, mapping public health, education, and public safety services.
Governmental Decision-Making
Governments at all levels use GIS data for myriad purposes. Researchers indicate that as much as 80 percent of data stored by the government has a spatial component.
Local governments use GIS data for addressing local problems.
National governments often focus their GIS efforts on disaster prevention and mitigation.
Chapter 2 | Geographic Inquiry: Data, Tools, and Technology
2.1 Thinking Like a Geographer: The Geo-Inquiry Process
Thinking Like a Geographer
Geographers think spatially in terms of space, place, arrangement, and interconnections between humans and the environment.
Geographic thinking requires:
Asking questions
Collecting and organizing data
Making connections
Presenting data in a usable way.
Tools such as maps, globes, graphs, photographs, and satellite imagery provide geographers with vast amounts of data to be analyzed.
The Geo-Inquiry Process
The Geo-Inquiry question is the core of the entire process: Why did it (any given phenomena) happen?
Not only do geographers strive to understand where something is, or when something happened, but paramount to those understandings (and following them, as a next level of inquiry) is why.
Identifying and gathering the data you need to answer the Geo-Inquiry question is the second step.
As in any scientific process, the evidence derived from the data you collect will be chosen based on relevancy to the topic or issue.
Information about both site and situation are important to consider, as well as time and how factors relating to your inquiry may be affected in the future, or were affected, historically.
There are many ways to survey and/or collect data about your geographic inquiry.
The next step is to visualize the gathered data.
Think about the visuals that would help others better understand the issue and resulting actions that can be taken.
Visualizations of data can be used to skew someone’s perception of data.
The next step is to create, organizing your data and evidence in a contextualizing format.
The final step is to act. Present the gathered information to decision-makers or those with impact upon your inquiry.
The Geo-Inquiry Process is a five-step method: Ask, collect, visualize, create, act.
2.2 Geographic Data and Tools
Collecting data
Geographers use a variety of methods for collecting data.
Geographic information is any data with a location tied to it.
Data collected through the many methods geographers use are either…
Quantitative: Involving data that can be measured by numbers
Qualitative: Involving data that is descriptive of a research subject and is often based on people's opinions.
Quantitative data is objective and numerical, such as populations (of people or things.)
Qualitative data is an interpretation or is subjective.
Skills involved in analyzing quantitative and qualitative data involve seeking patterns, relationships, and connections.
The data geographers collect has to be at the appropriate scale and align to the nature of the research questions.
Data could be collected from a number of sources. This eliminates skew or bias as much as possible.
It is important to consider all perspectives when gathering data. A perspective cannot be neglected if it does not align with personal belief.
Who Collects Data?
Countless organizations, both public and private, collect and analyze data. Such as the U.S. Census Bureau.
Census: An official count of the number of people in a defined area, such as a state
The Census Bureau does not only count people. It also conducts surveys on things such as the economy, agriculture, educational attainment, employment, income, language proficiency, migration, housing, and elections.
Data gathering takes multiple forms, such as written surveys or in-person or phone interviews that gather information about people and their experiences.
Geographic Information Systems
Geospatial technologies encompass the modern tools used to analyze data about specific locations across the globe.
Geographic information system (GIS): A computer system that allows for the collection, organization, and display of geographic data for analysis.
GIS data can be used for simple maps or complex, layered ones.
Such maps are created by organizing layers of information to form a combined image.
Each type of information is stored in a separate layer that represents a specific theme and dataset
A wide range of spatial data is easily compared and analyzed using GIS, such as elevation or…
Topography: The representation of earth's surface to show natural and man-made features, especially their relative positions and elevations.
It can also display demographic information about the people who live in a certain place.
Combining the data from these layers makes it easy for geographers to make connections.
GIS maps support geovisualization, which is the process of creating visuals for geographic analysis using maps, graphs, and multimedia.
Geospatial technologies collect and analyze immense amounts of data leading to a revolution in spatial decision-making.
The geospatial revolution encompasses nearly every aspect of human life.
Today, in an instant, individuals and organizations can send, receive, and broadcast information about where they are, where they have been, and where they are going.
Maps created out of this geospatial data have a wide variety of uses.
Other Remote Sensing Tools
A variety of geospatial technologies gather data; some do so remotely, or without making physical contact.
Remote sensing: A method of collecting or analyzing data from a location without making physical contact
Satellites take images of sections of Earth at regular intervals to determine changes that occur on the surface.
Comparing satellite images can help identify phenomena such as trends in urban development or the shrinking of the polar ice caps.
Remote sensors mounted on aircraft or drones are another source of data.
As technology advances and becomes less expensive, drones are making remotely-sensed data more accessible than ever.
Global positioning system (GPS): A network of satellites that orbit Earth and transmit location data to receivers, enabling users to pinpoint their exact location
The accuracy of the information allows people to determine the precise distance between two points, making GPS especially useful for navigation purposes.
GPS is used for several geospatial applications beyond GIS.
This amount of data can actually become a challenge because of how over-saturated the research community is with the sheer amount of data.
Now internet-based supercomputer systems are being developed to help geographers manage, analyze, and share this data.
2.3 Understanding Maps
Mapmaking
Maps are the fundamental tool most uniquely identified with geography.
People have used maps to depict information for thousands of years, and they continue to use increasingly sophisticated maps today.
Maps come in all shapes, sizes, and formats, and have a wide variety of uses and purposes. One of the most common uses of maps is to locate something, but nowhere close to the only use.
Cartographer: A person who creates maps
Patterns in our world are seldom random; spatial features tend to be clustered, dispersed, or linear.
Absolute distance: Distance that can be measured using a standard unit of length
Relative distance: Distance determined in relation to other places or objects
Absolute distance is a distance that can be measured using a standard unit of length.
Relative distance is measured in terms of other criteria such as time or money.
Absolute direction: The cardinal directions north, south, east, and west
Relative direction: Direction based on a person's perception, such as left, right, up, or down
As representations of the entire world or part of the world, maps are selective in the information they represent.
Mapmakers must decide how much of Earth to show and how to show it. These decisions are driven by the purpose of the map.
Maps can be used to show location, distance, other spatial relationships, or change.
It is important to evaluate maps critically by considering the source of the data and the intent of the cartographer.
Map Scale
Maps can show information at almost any scale.
Map scale: The relationship of the size of the map to the size of the area it represents on Earth's surface
This allows you to calculate absolute distance.
Usually represented in one of three ways: As a representative fraction, a written scale, or graphically.
The scale of a map is an important clue to the level of detail portrayed as well as the purpose of the map.
As the scale of analysis varies, so does the kind and amount of information shown on the map.
A certain pattern may be obvious at one scale, but as you zoom out, other patterns may become clear.
A large-scale map will, ironically, show a very small area.
The name comes from the fact that it shows a great amount of data and detail.
This may be a city map, where each street or even shop is labeled.
A medium-scale map has both a considerable degree of data as well as area. This may be something like a state or large county.
A small-scale map shows very little data but much area. This may be like a large country map.
Map Projections
Cartographers must find a way to represent the 3D object of the earth in a 2D format. Complete accuracy is impossible.
There are various ways the world has been depicted to try and solve this problem.
Different projections distort spatial relations in shape, area, direction, or distance.
Generally, to improve one factor, like the relative sizes of land masses, you must sacrifice another, like the shape.
The purpose of the map should guide the type of projection used.
Map Projection Types
Within the broad categories of projections, including conformal, cylindrical, and equal-area, are four common projection types: Robinson, Mercator, Gall-Peters, and azimuthal.
Each projection has advantages and limitations and distorts the sizes and shapes of Earth’s landmasses in different ways.
The Robinson projection has curved lines of longitude and straight lines of latitude, which means directions are true only along the parallels (including the equator) and the central meridian.
Its unique, globe-like appearance makes the Robinson projection useful for many different types of maps.
The Mercator and Gall-Peters projections show true direction, which is direction measured with reference to the north geographic pole.
These two projections are often used for navigation.
The Azimuthal projection is well-suited for maps of the Arctic and Antarctic.
Types of Maps
Reference map: A map that focuses on the location of places
Thematic map: Any map that focuses on one or more variables to show a relationship between geographic data
Reference maps illustrate the boundaries, names, and other unique identifiers of places and regions.
They focus on the location of geospatial elements such as countries, cities, lakes, and other features of a landscape.
Physical maps, which primarily show landforms and other natural features, and political maps, which primarily show boundaries between governmental units like countries or states, are examples of reference maps.
Reference maps often show absolute location in terms of latitude and longitude.
Thematic maps are maps focused on a particular topic or theme.
Thematic maps can show the distribution, flow, connection of, or relationship among one or more attributes.
Showing too many attributes on the same map can confuse its message.
Basemaps form the foundations of both reference and thematic maps.
Many thematic maps use a basemap showing coastlines, city locations, and political boundaries.
Most geographic data relates to specific points, lines, and areas. The way maps display these types of data affects the analysis.
Clusters are best illustrated in maps that use dots or graduated symbols.
Isoline maps connect data points of equal value, like elevation, temperature, or precipitation.
Choropleth maps use color or shading to display quantitative data in preset regions.
Graduated symbols represent differences in size or extent of something in an area. Greater numbers are represented by larger symbols.
A cartogram is a unique type of map that conveys information by making the areas on a map proportional to the variable being mapped.
2.4 The Power of Data
How Data is Used
Geographic data is used to help people understand problems, consider options that lead to making decisions, and measure the effects of those decisions.
Making Decisions with Geographic Data
Personal and Organizational Decision-Making
Geographic data influences where people decide to live, by a number of factors and metrics.
People in the market for a home consider its walkability, proximity to work, property taxes, crime statistics, school zones, floodplain or earthquake data, and other risks.
Businesses make location decisions in ways similar to individuals.
When deciding where to locate, businesses typically review demographic data on potential customers, the workforce, tax rates, and more.
Other groups seek to expand data related to quality of life, mapping public health, education, and public safety services.
Governmental Decision-Making
Governments at all levels use GIS data for myriad purposes. Researchers indicate that as much as 80 percent of data stored by the government has a spatial component.
Local governments use GIS data for addressing local problems.
National governments often focus their GIS efforts on disaster prevention and mitigation.
