AP Psych Unit 4: Social Psychology and Personality 2025

attribution theory

the theory that we explain someone's behavior by crediting either the situation or the person's disposition

fundamental attribution error

the tendency for observers, when analyzing another's behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition

peripheral route persuasion

occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker's attractiveness

central route persuasion

occurs when interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts

foot-in-the-door

the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request

door-in-the-face

asking for a large commitment and being refused and then asking for a smaller commitment

social contagion

imitative behavior involving the spread of behavior, emotions, and ideas; laughing when someone else laughs

Conformity

Adjusting one's behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard.

normative social influence

influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval

informational social influence

the influence other people have on us because we want to be right

social facilitation

improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others

social loafing

the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable

Deindividuation

the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity

group polarization

the enhancement of a group's prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group

Groupthink

the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives

actor-observer bias

the tendency to blame our actions on the situation and blame the actions of others on their personalities

Discrimination

unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members

Ethnocentrism

evaluation of other cultures according to preconceptions originating in the standards and customs of one's own culture.

in-group bias

tendency to favor individuals within our group over those from outside our group

outgroup

a group that one does not belong to or identify with

scapegoat theory

the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame

other-race effect

the tendency to recall faces of one's own race more accurately than faces of other races

just-world phenomenon

the tendency for people to believe that people get what they deserve and deserve what they get

implicit prejudice

unfounded negative belief of which we're unaware regarding the characteristics of an out-group

social script

culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations

mere-exposure effect

the tendency of liking what we are familiar with

Equity

a condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it

altruism

unselfish concern for the welfare of others

bystander effect

the finding that a person is less likely to provide help when there are others around

reciprocity norm

an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them

social-responsibility norm

an expectation that people will help those needing their help

social trap

a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior

subordinate goals

shared purpose that overrides differences among people and requires their cooperation

drive-reduction theory

the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state that motivates an organism to satisfy the need

arousal theory

A theory of motivation suggesting that people are motivated to maintain an optimal level of alertness and physical and mental activation.

Homeostasis

A tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level

lateral hypothalamus

stimulates hunger in the brain

affiliation

the need to build relationships and to feel part of a group

Ostracism

deliberate social exclusion of individuals or groups

narcissism

excessive self-love and self-absorption

achievement motivation

a desire for significant accomplishment: for mastery of things, people, or ideas; for attaining a high standard

spillover effect

when one emotion continues from one situation to another; more happy about getting job after running as opposed to just waking up

behavior feedback

the tendency of behavior to influence our own and others' thoughts, feelings, and actions

approach-approach conflict

Conflict that results from having to choose between two attractive alternatives

avoidance-avoidance conflict

Conflict that results from having to choose between two distasteful alternatives

Type A personality

personality type that describes people who are competitive, driven, hostile, and ambitious

Type B personality

Personality characterized by relatively relaxed, patient, easygoing, amicable behavior.

Catharsis

the process of releasing, and thereby providing relief from, strong or repressed emotions.

relative deprivation

the perception that we are worse off than those with whom we compare ourselves

Personality

an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting

Psychoanalysis

Freud's theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts; the techniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions

Id

a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives; operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification.

ego

the largely conscious, "executive" part of personality that, according to Freud, mediates among the demands of other parts of the mind; operates on the reality principle

Superego

the part of personality that, according to Freud, represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations

defense mechanisms

the ego's protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality

inferiority complex

a pattern of avoiding feelings of inadequacy rather than trying to overcome their source

projective test

a personality test that provides ambiguous stimuli designed to trigger projection of one's inner dynamics

TAT

a projective test in which subjects look at and tell a story about ambiguous pictures

Rorschach test

a projective test that uses inkblots as the ambiguous stimulus

self-actualization

according to Maslow, the ultimate psychological need that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one's potential

unconditional positive regard

a caring, accepting, nonjudgmental attitude, which Carl Rogers believed would help clients to develop self-awareness and self-acceptance

reciprocal determinism

Bandura's idea that though our environment affects us, we also affect our environment

spotlight effect

overestimating others' noticing and evaluating our appearance, performance, and blunders (as if we presume a spotlight shines on us)

self-efficacy

An individual's belief that he or she is capable of performing a task.

Dunning-Kruger Effect

The tendency for unskilled individuals to overestimate their own ability and the tendency for experts to underestimate their own ability.

cognitive dissonance

Inner tension that a consumer experiences after recognizing an inconsistency between behavior and values or opinions

Yerkes-Dodson Law

the principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases

display rules

culturally determined rules about which nonverbal behaviors are appropriate to display