A&P I (Exam #1)

anatomy

the study of the structure of body parts and their relationships to one another

physiology

study of the function of the body

homeostasis

maintenance of a relatively stable internal environment despite continuous outside changes

How are anatomy and physiology related?

principle of complementarity of structure and function (structure drives function, anatomy dictates physiology)

levels of human organization

-chemical level
-cellular level
-tissue level
-organ level
-organ system level
-organismal level

metabolism

converting nutrients into energy and building materials for the body

anabolism

building up using nutrients

catabolism

breaking down nutrients

what are the five biological functions necessary for survival?

responsiveness, movement, development, growth, reproduction

define negative feedback and give examples

most common method for maintaining homeostasis, negates the stimulus (body temperature regulation, blood glucose regulation)

define positive feedback and give examples

a change in a given direction causes additional change in the same direction (childbirth, healing a broken bone, hemostasis)

define prone

body lying face-down

define supine

body lying face-up

deltoid

triangular shoulder muscle

fibular

lateral part of the lower leg area (think lateral side of shin/calf)

section vs plane

section implies an actual cut or slice of the body,
plane implies a plane passing through the body

define serous membrane

a type of membrane that either lines the inside of cavities (parietal) or the outside of organs (visceral)

what are the 3 serous cavities?

-pleura
-pericardium
-peritoneum

define matter

anything that occupies space and has mass

define element

fundamental substances that make up all matter

what are the top 4 most abundant elements in the human body?

oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen

what is the most common element in the human body?

Oxygen

what element is "Ca"?

Calcium

what element is "P"?

Phosphorus

what element is "S"?

Sulfur

define compound

substance composed of two or more elements joined by chemical bonds

define atom

the basic unit of a chemical element (contain equal numbers of protons and electrons)

the 3 subatomic particles

-protons
-neutrons
-electrons

proton charge and location

positive, nucleus of arom

neutron charge and location

neutral, nucleus of atom

electron charge and location

negative, orbiting the nucleus of atom

define atomic number

the number of protons

define mass number

the sum of protons and neutrons in an element

define isotope

atoms of the same element with different number of neutrons

define electron shell

different levels of orbits that electrons follow around an atom's nucleus

define valence shell

the outermost electron shell of an atom

how many electrons are in each shell?

the first shell can hold 2, and each subsequent shell can hold up to 8 (octet rule, atoms are stable when valence shell is full)

determine the electron number in a valence shell given the atomic number:

sodium (Na), atomic number is 11

1

determine the electron number in a valence shell given the atomic number-

oxygen (O), atomic number is 8

6

molecule vs compound (definition and examples)

a molecule is two or more atoms chemically bonded (H2O, O2, O3), while a compound is a type of molecule that specifically has two or more atoms that are different elements (NaCl, H2O)

define bond

the attraction between two or more atoms

define ion

an atom or molecule with a net electric charge due to the loss or gain of one or more electrons

define cation

Atoms that lose electrons and therefore have a positive charge

define anion

Atoms that gain electrons and therefore have a negative charge

define ionic bonds

the attraction between oppositely charged ions

define covalent bonds (nonpolar vs polar)

molecules form a bond by sharing electrons (nonpolar\=sharing electrons equally, like O2, polar\=sharing electrons unequally, like H2O)

discuss hydrogen bonds

hydrogen atoms with a slightly positive charge are attracted to other negatively charged atoms (think about the attraction between two or more water molecules, the hydrogen from one may be attracted to the oxygen from another)

define metabolism

any chemical process within the body that converts energy in order to maintain homeostasis

define kinetic energy

energy of motion

define potential energy

stored energy

define chemical energy

potential energy stored in chemical bonds

define reactant

a substance that undergoes a reaction

define product

a substance that forms as a result of a chemical reaction

define synthesis reaction

two reactants build a product

define decomposition reaction

one reactant breaks down into two products

define exchange reaction

two reactants trade parts of themselves to make two new products

what are the building blocks of carbohydrates?

monosaccharides (simple sugars)

what are the building blocks of triglycerides (lipids)?

fatty acids and glycerol

what are the building blocks of proteins?

amino acids

what are the building blocks of nucleic acids?

nucleotides

define inorganic compound and list the 4 ones essential to human functioning

compounds that don't contain both carbon and hydrogen (water, salts, acids, bases)

define mixture

made of two or more elements or compounds that are physically mixed together but not chemically combined

define solution

a homogeneous, clear mixture of solute and solvent

define solute

the substance that is dissolved

define acid and base

Acids release hydrogen ions(H+) in a solution, bases either release hydroxyl ions (OH-) in a solution or accept the hydrogen ions already present in a solution

define the pH scale and provide examples of acidic, basic, and neutral substances

a measurement of the relative acidity or alkalinity of a solution (0-7-14/acidic-neutral-basic, HCl-pure water-drain cleaner)

what is the range for blood pH?

7.35-7.45

define buffer

a solution of weak acid and its conjugate base, it can neutralize small amounts of acids or bases in body fluids

Define monosaccharides, give examples

The simple carbohydrate compounds from which all other carbohydrates are built
-glucose (hexose)
-fructose (hexose)
-galactose (hexose)
-deoxyribose (pentose)
-ribose (pentose)

Define disaccharides, give examples

simple carbohydrate compounds formed when two monosaccharides undergo dehydration synthesis
-sucrose (bonded glucose and fructose)
-lactose (bonded galactose and glucose)
-maltose (two bonded glucose monosaccharides)

define polysaccharides, give examples

large complex carbohydrate compounds formed when monosaccharides undergo several rounds of dehydration synthesis, important in the storage of energy as glycogen
-starches (amylose, amylopectin)
-glycogen
-cellulose (fiber)

what is the major function of carbohydrates in the body?

source of fuel for all body cells, important part of ATP, RNA, DNA, glycoproteins, glycolipids, and other molecules within the body

Define triglyceride, what are their functions?

a neutral fat made when three fatty acid chains are bound to glycerol via dehydration synthesis, they store unused calories and provide the body with energy

define phospholipids

two fatty acid chains and a phosphorous-containing group attached to a glycerol backbone, cell membrane component

define steroids (sterol)

made of four hydrocarbon rings with polar and non-polar regions, cell membrane component (cholesterol, some hormones, found in bile)

Define prostaglandins

made when arachidonic acid is converted, they're signaling molecules that regulate blood pressure and pain sensation

define fibrous proteins

extensive secondary structure (elongated), structural role

define globular proteins

tertiary or quaternary structure, functional role

define enzymes

proteins that function as biological catalysts

what are the functions of proteins?

antibody, enzyme, signaling, structural component, transport/storage

Define deoxyribonucleic acid

a double-stranded helix made of nucleotides that stores genetic information

list types of lipids

-phospholipids
-steroids
-prostaglandins

list types of nucleotides

-pentose sugar (ribose, deoxyribose)
-phosphate group
-nucleic acids
-purines (adenine, guanine)
-pyrimidines (cytosine, thymine (DNA only), Uracil (RNA only))

Define ribonucleic acid

a single-stranded molecule (containing ribose, and) made of nucleotides that helps manifest the genetic code as protein

define the embedded proteins of the phospholipid bilayer (cell membrane)

peripheral membrane protein (cell signaling, temporarily embedded), integral membrane protein (transport molecules, permanently embedded), channel protein (transport)

define the embedded cholesterol of the phospholipid bilayer (cell membrane)

stabilizes and strengthens the membrane

examples of passive vs active transport

-osmosis (passive)
-sodium-potassium pump (active)
-electrochemical gradient (active)
-diffusion (passive)
-facilitated diffusion (passive)

define facilitated diffusion as a form of passive transport

uses a channel protein, carrier protein (normally for a single substance), or aquaporin (channel proteins for water)

what are all of the basic life functions?

-maintaining boundaries
-movement
-responsiveness
-digestion
-metabolism
-excretion
-reproduction
-growth

what are the three main nutrients?

carbs, proteins, and fats

what are the 5 basic survival needs?

-nutrients
-oxygen
-water
-normal body temperature
-appropriate atmospheric pressure

what things need to be balanced to maintain homeostasis? what is the range for them called?

-calcium, glucose, iron, potassium, sodium, pH
-dynamic equilibrium

list the receptors that participate in controlling and maintaining homeostasis

-baroreceptor (pressure)
-chemoreceptor
-mechanoreceptor
-proprioceptor (spatial recognition between limbs)
-nociceptor (pain)
-thermoreceptor

list the control centers that participate in controlling and maintaining homeostasis

-brain
-spinal cord

list the effectors that participate in controlling and maintaining homeostasis

-muscles
-glands

list the forms of kinetic energy

-thermal energy
-mechanical energy
-electrical energy
-magnetic energy

list the forms of potential energy

-chemical energy
-elastic energy
-nuclear energy
-gravitational energy

what is ATP?

adenosine triphosphate (made up of adenine, ribose, and 3 phosphate groups), the form of energy that the body uses (used to transport substances and provide energy for anabolic reactions)

what do cations and anions form together in large groups? when water breaks the ionic bonds in these, what do you call the charged particles that are released?

salts, electrolytes

factors influencing rates of reactions

-reactant properties (bigger size\=higher reaction rate, also whether gas, liquid, or solid)
-temperature
-concentration
-pressure
-enzymes