Institutions Challenged

early modern Europe, renaissance, reformation

who first had slaves from Africa?

Arabs from North Africa

4 ways in which people became slaves

1. criminals sold as punishment
2. individuals sold by families at a time of famine and need
3. kidnapped by merchants
4. prisoners of war

religious justification Europeans gave for taking slaves

leads to Jesus, their saviour

most efficient way for Europeans to obtain slaves

trade on the coast with Africans who were willing to sell their neighbors in exchange for trade goods and metals

dominating the slave trade

16th century: spanish and portuguese

17th century: dutch

18th century: british and danish joined

how long was the trip across the atlantic?

35-40 days from west coast of Africa to Brazil

* used to transport African captives

why did the french join the salve trade?

built fort of Saint Louis in Senegal to supply it sugar islands with labour

European interference in African politics

encourages civil wards in African kingdoms, producing more prisoners that could then be sold into slavery

how slave trade affected development of African states

* resulted in widespread depopulation
* unnecessary conflicts
* trading nations made no contribution to the infrastructure of Africa
* only exchanged cheap manufactured goods for slaves

how European capitalism differed from other major economonies

caused Europe to expand geographically and obtain access to markets and resources of the world

the crucial access provided by Central America

from the Atlantic to the Pacific coast of south America

how goods were transported before the Panama canal was built

great mule trains

* traveled from 1 ocean to the other

purpose of Acapulco’s fortress

on pacific coast of Mexico

* protected fleets that crossed to Manila and the Philippine Islands

the East India Company

* formed in 1600
* England
* traded spices

the United East India Company

* formed in 1602
* the Netherlands
* traded with Indonesia and Malay

the French East India Company

* formed in 1604
* north-western France

the Dutch United West India Company

* formed in 1621
* the Netherlands
* traded furs and slaves

products the Dutch specialized in

* tobacco
* chocolate
* liqueur

products Columbus brought from Europe to the Americas

* horses
* pigs
* wheat
* chickpeas
* vegetable seeds
* fruit trees

products that went from the Americas to Europe (and Africa and China)

* maize
* tomatoes
* potatoes
* chocolate
* peanuts
* vanilla
* pineapple
* lima beans
* sweet + hot peppers

what sugar was a replacement for

honey (as a sweetener in tea)

coffee

came from Africa

* was brought to Europe by Europeans

what Cartier told the Amerindians

the native people Cartier took to France were alive + well + so happy there that they had no desire to return home to their families

reality of the Native people Cartier brought to France

they became sick and died

priests and religious figures spoke against the Spanish conquerors with vast criticism of:

1. the cruelty and tyranny used to deal with innocent people
2. the wrongness of human servitude
3. the moral sin of exploitation

caused the idea that no one should be denied access to faith + that Indians are “truly men” to emerge

the thesis of the civilization + competition video

the west was able to dominate the world to to the rise of competition and capitalism (leading to economic fortune), not because of better technology

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support:

* china had better technology + bigger population

how competition drove the west to colonize

1. they arrived on foreign shores with the intention to make profit
2. other European nations followed the spice trade, a highly sought after good, to many parts of the world
3. rivalry created


1. **colonizing meant staking claim to land + goods, out of reach of rivals**

why China held back from beating the west to colonize the world

1. the dream of global expansion died with Yongle
2. building a ship with >2 masts = death penalty
3. exotic animals brought by Zheng He’s voyages were suspicious to confucians - his journies were seen as pointless
4. confucian ideas did not encourage innovation or creativity

western Europe from 472-1450

* the lead-up to massive period of change + instability
* increase in social mobility
* creation of modern countries
* massive military advances
* revolution in art
* creation of science
* explosion of technology

the beginning of a chain of events leading to **revolution**, **democracy**, and radical new **understandings** of the world

Europe after the fall of Rome

* Rome sacked by Germanic tribes
* Western Roman Empire fell (472)
* Europe ruled by various Germanic kingdoms
* mass migrations away from cities (cities lost much of their importance)
* loss of learning
* classical world preserved in Constantinople
* role of government shifted from public government to rule based on bloodlines

the Catholic church

* In many ways a continuation of Roman culture
* Within a couple hundred years of the fall of the Western Roman Empire, most of Western Europe had been converted to Christianity


* Missionaries and influence of the Catholic Church
* Monasteries set up across Europe as centers of Christianity and preservers of knowledge. Men called monks, women called nuns


* In 590, Pope Gregory I broadened Church’s role in politics, seeing all of Western Europe as the Church’s spiritual kingdom

Charlemagne (742-814)

centralized power to decentralized power

* **Reunited Western Europe**
* Repelled invading Moorish forces from Spain and saved the Pope from attacks by mobs
* Crowned by Pope Leo III as Roman Emperor
* **Strengthened centralized power, lessening power of European nobles**
* Empire broke down after his sons fought over it

Europe in crisis: instability + security

(after Charlemagne + decentralized power)

* Infighting and the breakdown of central authority opened the door to invasion
* From the south there were __Muslim__ invaders (who raided much of Italy and sacked Rome in 846)
* __Magyar__ invaders from the east (tribes of early Hungarians)
* From the north, __vikings__ terrorized populations along the coast
* Protection was desperately needed

**This led to the rise of** __Feudalism__

feudalism

* Decentralization of Charlemagne’s empire and the constant attacks by foreign invaders made people gravitate toward strong local rulers for protection.
* Land was granted by **kings** to **nobles** who granted land to their **knights**, who allowed peasants to live and work on their land *in exchange for* protection
* land = central
* lords had the power judge, tax, and run the local market, wine press, mill, and tavern

feudal structure

1. kings
2. lords (vassals to king)


1. gave loyalty and military aid in exchange for fief and peasants
3. knights (vassals to lords)


1. gave homage and military service in exchange for food, protection, and shelter
4. peasants (serfs)


1. farmed land and paid rent in exchange for food, protection, and shelter

merchants (relation to feudal structure)

* Merchants were in some ways outside of this class hierarchy
* They weren’t peasants because they didn’t work the land, or engage in physical labour. But they weren’t knights or nobles because they didn’t have the proper bloodlines
* They traded in goods from all over Europe, Asia, The Middle-East and Africa
* Most lived in cities

merchant guilds

* Early on in the middle ages, merchants began banding together and created organizations called guilds
* __Guilds regulated the numbers and prices of goods__
* Members received **security** as well as a kind of **insurance** for any losses

commercial revolution

Increased trade resulted in:


1. **more workers needed** → serfs moved to town; workers paid for labor
2. **more cash, banking, and lending services available** → more money available for building businesses
3. **merchants’ wealth and power expand** → merchants’ taxes increase the king’s power and wealth

The Black Death / Black Plague / Bubonic Plague

* one of the deadliest plagues in human history
* killed 75-200 million people across Europe and Asia
* 40 million in Europe (half its population)
* took 200 years for population of Europe to return to where it was
* started in China, carried west by **fleas on rats**
* It was introduced to Europe by Italian (Genoese) traders
* at its worst from 1347-1351, but hit Europe periodically until the late 1600s
* killed a third of Europe in 5 years
* People defended themselves by sealing infected houses with all the people inside.
* other diseases: Festering wounds, diarrhoea from bad water, respiratory infections.

effects of the plague

No one knew how disease spread (Germ Theory of Disease didn’t come until 19th century)

* widespread belief that the plague was a punishment from god
* Hysteria grew - people began targeting minorities like the Jewish population
* Jewish people were accused of poisoning wells
* Pogroms were held across Europe where thousands of Jews and other minorities were massacred
* much of workforce demolished - economy slumped - massive food shortages


* surviving peasants and serfs, now in high demand, could bargain for higher wages
* gave peasants more sending power, enriching merchants
* wealthier merchants = wealthier banks +cities

places where the Renaissance happened

* English 
* German
* Low Countries
* French
* Spanish 
* Portuguese

European society and culture in the 1500s (16th century)

* Local control of politics; central institutions were weak
* Hierarchical nature of society
* Tradition and religion
* Great danger from disease, poor hygiene, famine, natural disaster, war, violence

origins of the Renaissance (6)

* rejection of the medieval period
* movement towards secular society
* northern states of Italy (city of Florence)
* increasing shift to city living
* increased wealth from trade
* began at the end of the black death
* population decreased, people began doubting the intentions of God

financial origins of the Renaissance

* Italian peninsula divided into a number of powerful city-states
* central authorities weak, power went to rulers of city-states
* merchants growing in wealth and influence
* Family banks in Italy (Medicis)

political change through the growth in Italian city-states

* Italy = commercial bridge between West and Asia
* Italian cities flourished 
* (shipbuilding, bookkeeping, letters of credit, markets)
* __Economy__ changed from agricultural trade to foreign trade, based on credit and open markets
* Diversity of ideas, cultural melting pot, influences mindset

Florence

* heart of the Italian Renaissance
* home to almost every famous
* republic dominated by merchant guilds
* = wealth + freedom to propagate wealth
* less political/spiritual repression
* Medici family has strong vision + resources to enact it

Florence + the Medicis

* Florence had been a republic since 1115 - an anomaly in Europe. It was ruled by a council called the *Signoria*, whose members were chosen by an elected ruler (every 2 months)
* A successful merchant family, the Medicis, established one of Florence’s first family banks, The Medici Bank, in 1397

Cosimo de’ Medici

* used immense wealth to influence political outcomes
* “a king in all but name”
* exiled from Florence because of his corruption, but leaders forced to lift exile due to his influence on economy
* married into banking family Bardi
* **wealth began to lead to social + political power**

Lorenzo de’ Medici

Cosimo’s grandson

* took over family bank


* became greatest artistic patron of the family
* sponsored Da Vinci and Michelangelo
* expanded the bank’s influence by adding more locations across Europe

Origins of humanism

* Wealthy merchants had more **time** and **resource** to explore their interests
* A number of wealthy merchants began scouring Europe’s monasteries for documents from the classical period to **increase** their own **knowledge** and libraries
* It soon became a symbol of **prestige** to appear as educated
* __Scholars were rounded up to translate these ancient Greek and Roman texts into vernacular__
* These scholars known as philologists (now linguists)
* The discovery and translation of these texts led to an explosion of art and ideas - a “**rebirth**” of classical knowledge

core beliefs of humanism

* individual has divine worth + opportunities for greatness in this world

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* Many people had been disenchanted with the teachings of the Church after the horrors of the Black Death
* People prayed and repented, and still died - Church in decline as market economies grew

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* Foundation of what we still call **The Humanities:** Rhetoric, poetry, philosophy, language, music

__Perfecting human life on earth → living a good life__ (away with religion)

practical ramifications of the Renaissance

* focused a lot of classical themes
* Increased focus on emotion and natural elements of life
* Interest in classical subjects like anatomy and proportion, strong appreciation of the human body (more nude art)
* earthly matters (living a good life, beauty)
* importance of the individual (human capacity for greatness

social + political impact of the Renaissance

* humanist movement (focus on the individual)
* local control by feudal lords → centralized control by monarchs of kingdoms or city-states (absolutism)
* Further centralization of power - elites moved to urban centers, many joined royal courts

Scientific impact of the Renaissance

* Movement away from medieval ideas of magic, mystery, and allegory to Renaissance ideals of experimentations and empiricism (philosophy that all concepts originate in experience)
* Away from trial by ordeal toward scientific principles

religious impact of the Renaissance

* Return to original scripture, emphasis on direct spiritual experience rather than reliance on priests or rituals
* **The Reformation**—and resistance to this—will directly impact life for most people for several centuries

artistic impact of the Renaissance

* Movement towards realism and naturalism
* Introduction to aerial, scientific, and 2pt perspective

leonardo da vinci

* *Mona Lisa:* Oil on panel
* Not a religious figure—focus on the individual & the human being
* most famous painting in the world

\-1.6 million people saw it when it traveled to New York

\-when it travelled to Japan, you had 10 seconds to look at it

\-this painting is in very high demand - but why?

\-it’s definitely not the best painting in the world

\-subject: Lisa Garradini and her husband commissioned this painting

\-it’s a good Renaissance painting - pyramid composition, apex, head and shoulders, and it has “sfumato = of smoke” and chiaroscuro which is like contrast (light against dark) which we see especially in her clothing

\-he painted her hands which is a notoriously difficult task and he did a great job

\-it’s believed that Leonardo carried this painting around with him all the time - weird? Why? Did he not believe it was finished? Does it mean something to him? We don’t really know

\-we do know that she has an enigmatic smile which is mesmerizing

\-she has very thin eyebrows - did she do that on purpose or was there lead in the water that caused them to thin

\-her eyes follow you around? Some say not really!

\-when Leonardo gets older, everyone wants something from him

\-King of France invites him to spend time in his court and live in his palace

\-Leonardo dies in France and when he dies, the Mona Lisa is in his possession

\-King of France puts it up for auction and stays in the possession of the King of France

\-presumably, Italy is unhappy about this outcome

\-eventually ends up in the Louvre (Paris)

\-in 1911, Italian Nationalist Vincenzo Peruggia decides to do something about it

\-he hides in a closet and waits until the museum closes and he steals it!

\-he stores it in his apartment in a little trunk for two years

\-1913: he then offers it to the Uffizi gallery which is essentially Italy’s version of the Louvre

\-The Uffizi says “um… France would not be cool with this”

\-ultimately, the portrait went on tour in Italy but it ended up being sent back to France

\-some people think that the Mona Lisa is a portrait of Leonardo in drag

\-facial overlay shows some pretty close similarities
* *The Last Supper*: tempra & oil on plaster
* perspective extends the space in the room

\-the piece is so significant because it represents a very dramatic moment: a real whodunnit (who is going to betray Jesus?)

\-it’s also painted with an egg-based tempera paint but it didn’t stick to the plaster very well.  The paint started to peel and chip during his lifetime

\-Da Vinci Code interpretation - is it nonsense? Talks about this painting has a secret in it:  Was Leonardo a member of the Priory of Sion?  Did the church make Mary Magdalene seem like a prostitute so that the only connection Christ had was to the church rather than to a bloodline lineage.  Holy Grail = Sang Real? Royal Blood? Is their union in the painting representative of their union and resultant offspring?
* *Virgin of the Rock*: oil on canvas
* dabbled in everything - irrigation systems, music, astronomy, credited with inventing the helicopter, tanks, etc.
* he was so early with many of these ideas in the 1400s-1500s that his ideas couldn’t be realized (a man too early for his time)
* did a portion of *baptism of christ*
* *vitruvian man*
* *9embryo in the womb*

Michelangelo

* *David: content still biblical, but humanized*
* poor quality marble

\-17’ tall

\-features contrapposto → in the visual arts, a sculptural scheme, originated by the ancient Greeks, in which the standing human figure is poised such that the weight rests on one leg (called the engaged leg), freeing the other leg, which is bent at the knee

\-impressive because not only did he overcome poor quality marble, it represents Florence (David) “staring down” at Rome (Goliath)

\-hands were deliberately made huge because of “foreshortening” - when you’re underneath looking up, it looks correct

\-when you look at the sculpture from afar he looks contemplative but up close, he looks furrowed and enraged because…. It's Florence starting down the mighty Rome!


* *Pieta*: marble (realism)
* Mother Mary with Christ’s limp body draped across her body

\-proportion is likely off here (is she too big?)

\-pyramid composition

\-a throwback to Ancient Greece (modesty, calmness, reflection in her face)

\-this was so impressive that Michelangelo goes back and carves his name in the sculpture because people don’t believe he carved it because he was so young

\-she was severely damaged when a man came in and vandalized it
* *Moses*: marble
* A misinterpretation of the bible lead to the belief that Moses had horns
* *The Sistine Chapel*: ceiling frescoes
* 340 human figures covering 10 000 sq ft over 4 years

\-no one was allowed to see it before it was finished

\-there are different segments which convey important aspects of the bible
* *The Last Judgement*
* very negative tone because he feels that he’s being taken advantage of and not being paid on time

\-overwhelmed by demands

\-portrays Bartholomew as being skinned alive which is actually Michelangelo and how he feels because of all of the demands

\-he’s also responsible for the Dome of St. Peters

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* worked alone, never had anyone helping him
* sculpture = primary form of art
* under wing of Medici family (age 15)

raphael

*School of Athens, Madonna and Child*

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* has a team
* plato + aristotle

titian

*Bacchanal of the Adrians*

what the Medicis believed philanthropy should promote

beauty, wisdom, truth

why the Medicis funded art and philosophy

they believed that art is its own kind of education

* their mission was to illustrate key philosophical truths such as kindness and serenity

Epicurus

Greek philosopher whose work “On the Nature of Things” was found in a German monastery

Renaissance attitude toward history and philosophy

very practical

* to use it to run their societies,
* make people wise,
* build magnificent cities, and
* create better ways of thinking for the present

idea that made architects and city planners believe urban beauty was so important

we are to a large extent shaped by the character of the buildings around us, which is why having beautiful, calm, and dignified living spaces is so important

Roman philosopher Sallust

* idea of countering public squalor, private opulence
* The public sphere itself should be opulent so that rich people will not withdraw into their own bubble of wealth
* This idea emphasizes the importance of community and the sharing of beauty

what makes certain ages in history more productive/prone to geniuses

* in certain periods such as Renaissance, intellectual leaders know what to do with latent talent
* They understood artists, gave them a mission, and were able to invest in them properly, focusing on selling beauty, truth, and wisdom instead of consumer goods

why Titian believed art > philosophy

* whereas most people don’t care to think about philosophy, a beautiful picture can be designed to take someone in without them noticing, so they start to subliminally think about the philosophy without meaning to

Ficino

philosopher that believed whatever we wish people to love, we must first make beautiful.

* And beauty is first encountered as sexiness.

Renaissance art reflection

1. **Discovery:** of new continents as well as Ancient local ruins in Greece and Rome (changes focus from religion)
2. **Scientific Study:** focus returns to the person (ie. cadavers)
3. **Human Belief:** the thought that people don’t need the church for answers

brief history of witchcraft

* 11th century - associated with heresy and the devil
* 14th century - fear of heresy + satan caused additional charges of diabolism (western witchcraft)
* 14th - 18th - witches were believed to reject christianity, to worship the devil and make pacts with him, to employ demons to accomplish magical deeds, and to desecrate the crucifix and Holy Communion

false witchcraft accusations

* They rode through the air at night to “sabbats” (secret meetings), where they engages in sexual orgies/had sex with satan
* They were **shapeshifters** (from human to animal or from one human form to another)
* They kidnapped and murdered children for the purpose of eating them or rendering their fat for magical ointments
* They entered animals in the form of “spirits”
* They practiced sorcery with the intent to cause harm
* These accusations created fear, making people want to distance themselves
* As a result, when measures are implemented, they are ok with it because they want to get rid of the source of fear

malleus maleficarium

15th century

* “The Hammer of Witches” (translation)
* A guide on how to properly deal with witches in society
* Unique for its extreme hatred and prejudice against women
* First manual to be widely printed by the printing press 929 different editions)

people accused of witchcraft

* Healers or **alternate medicine practitioners** (herbs)
* Ppl who **did not conform** to the norms of society (unmarried women)
* Ppl on the **fringes of society** (antisocial, didn’t attend church, etc)
* Ppl who **didn’t fit societal expectations** (physical, social religious)
* Ppl who were **scapegoated** for social/neighbour’s problems)

faith in church + general hysteria = need to immediately drive out danger

witchcraft statistics

* Healers or alternate medicine practitioners (herbs)
* Ppl who did not conform to the norms of society (unmarried women)
* Ppl on the fringes of society (antisocial, didn’t attend church, etc)
* Ppl who didn’t fit societal expectations (physical, social religious)
* Ppl who were scapegoated for social/neighbour’s problems)

relevance of the reformation

* known as protestant reformation - roughly 1/5 of today’s christians are protestant
* Led to massive social, political, and religious upheaval in Europe
* Europe looked much different afterward

the seven sacraments

encapsulated every life:

* Baptism, Eucharist, Confirmation, Reconciliation, Anointing of the sick, Marriage, Holy orders

seven deadly sins

* pride
* greed
* lust
* envy
* glutton
* wrath
* sloth

catholic church

* The Pope was God’s __representative__ on earth
* Clergy were __intermediaries__ between regular people and God
* Church had strong influence over kingdoms (the Crusades), and rulers, who could always be threatened with __excommunication__

monasticism

* First monastery established by St. Benedict in 529
* Monasteries set up across Europe
* There were a variety of orders of monks and nuns, with different practices
* Life was strict and regimented - when to eat, sleep, pray, work
* “Only under regulated conditions can the best potential of people be harnessed”

The State of the Church in 1517

* Was practicing the sale of ***Indulgences.*** Money from indulgences went to beautification of Rome, funding of armies
* Many members of the clergy were becoming too worldly, corrupt, and involved in secular politics
* The Medici popes - Pope Leo X (1513-1521), practiced sale of indulgences, spent lots of money patronizing the arts, continuing the construction of St. Peter’s Basilica - Michelangelo paid millions of dollars (in today’s money) for each commission
*  Increasing desire for individual, personal connection to God

impact of humanism

* Rebirth of classical values and  knowledge
* Increased focus on  improvement of secular life
* Celebration of the  individual

the printing press

* Invented by Johannes Gutenberg between 1440-1450
* Featured moveable,  metal type
* Printing presses were invented in  China several hundred years before Gutenberg. Movable type was created from wood or clay. Printing didn’t spread through Asia like it did through Europe, as Asian presses tended to have isolated use. This was partly because of the complexity of producing the variety in the  Chinese alphabet
* Gutenberg made use of mass-produced paper from water-powered mills, his specially-designed letter matrix, and oil-based ink to perfect his  printing
* Was  500x faster than hand-printed manuscripts produced at monasteries
* Allowed for the spread of ideas at a pace never before seen (humanism, the  Bible), and reached people who it wasn’t possible to reach before

universities

* First established by the Church in cities of Bologna, Paris, Oxford,  Cambridge
* It was considered the highest academic pursuit to study  theology. A Masters in Theology could take over a  decade to complete
* With the spread of  Humanism came and increased focus on education, both pre and post secondary

Martin Luther (1483-1546)

15th - 16th century

* One of the most written-about people of all time


* Kickstarted the Protestant  Reformation
* Very gifted student. Followed his father’s wishes by studying law. Wished for spiritual certainty, so dropped out of school to pursue theology and  philosophy. Became dissatisfied with philosophy because he believed reason couldn’t lead one to  God
* Began studying scripture  thoroughly
* In 1505, when he was 21, he was returning to university from home when, during a  thunderstorm, a lightning bolt struck near him. In his terror and fear of death he promised he would become a monk. He kept his promise and  dropped out of university to become a monk.
* He felt cut off from God as a monk, and after a few years went back to university, in Wittenberg, to study  theology
* published 95 theses
* Luther began  teaching his new ideas to students.
* Luther was summoned to  Rome to answer for his teachings
* The  territorial ruler where Luther lived, Frederick III, helped Luther out because he supported his beliefs. Luther was summoned to Augsburg instead where he met with a  Cardinal who advised him to recant.
* After a public debate in 1519, where Luther was made to reveal some heretical opinions, he was  excommunicated

start of the reformation

* In 1515, a  Dominican friar named Johann Tetzel came to Germany to practice the sale of indulgences to raise money for St. Peter’s in Rome
* Luther heard about this and wrote to his bishop protesting the sales. He included a copy of his  ***Ninety-Five Theses***, which outlined his arguments. __This happened on__ __*October 31, 1517*____, which signals the start of the  Reformation__. It’s tradition that Luther nailed his Theses to the door of the Wittenberg Castle Church

the 95 theses

* Meant to encourage academic  discussion
* Immediately reprinted and distributed across  Europe
* Argued  repentance for sin is a personal struggle rather than one facilitated by the Church’s  sacraments.
* Challenges Church’s teachings about  Purgatory
* Denies  Church has power over souls in Purgatory
* Fundamentally challenges  legitimacy of indulgences (promote greed, against Christian mercy)

sola fide

by faith alone

* salvation granted by faith in god

sola scriptura

by scripture alone

* the  Bible can be interpreted on its own, by anyone.

sola gratia

by grace alone

* God’s grace is what decides your fate, not the  sins you’ve committed.

social causes of the reformation

* ren values of humanism and secularism led people to question the church
* printing press helped spread ideas critical of the church

political causes of reformation

* powerful monarchs challenged the church as the supreme power in Europe
* many leaders viewed the pope as a foreign ruler and challenged his authority

economic causes of reformation

* European princes and kings jealous of church’s wealth
* merchants and others resented paying taxes to church

religious causes of reformation

* some church leaders had become worldly (concerned with mundane, temporary things instead of spiritual) and corrupt
* many ppl found church practices such as sale of indulgences unacceptable

counter reformation - background

* Over the centuries, there had been many attempts to revitalize the church and cleanse it of abuses and corruption
* Many people had historically denounced the church for its vast accumulation of wealth, the lacking morality of the popes and clergy, the woeful ignorance of parish priests, corruptions of doctrine, low levels of devotional life, and the sale of salvation in exchange for money

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* Over the centuries, there were many attempts to reform the church
* Most of these were unsuccessful in prompting any sort of change
* Popes and clergy were willing to tolerate some small reforms and minor changes, but unwilling to accept massive church reforms
* They found such ideas deeply threatening to the entire church order
* Widespread changes could threaten their authority and status 

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* As reformers like Martin Luther and Ignatius Loyola became too successful for the church to ignore, the institution had to take notice and deal with the massive challenges to the church’s status quo

the council of trent

* Pope Paul III was pope from 1534 - 1549
* Was convinced that only a council could deal with the reformation crisis
* Ordered the Council of Trent in northern Italy, which opened officially on December 13, 1545
* In spite of the diversity of views represented in the council, Paul III and his successors dominated it
* **Results assured papal supremacy in the church**

outcome of the counter reformation

* Prior to the reformation, the church tolerated some difference of opinion and interpretation of its doctrines
* After the reformation, the church couldn’t afford this anymore bc it __threatened__ the church’s authority and supremacy
* Due to the Lutheran and other reform movements, __doctrines__ were much more narrowly and rigidly defined by the church now
* All the tenets of Protestantism were denounced as heresy
* Martin Luther’s teaching on “justification by faith alone” was categorized as an error
* The number of __sacraments__ necessary for salvation was declared to be __seven__, not two as Luther and John Calvin said
* Tradition, along with the Bible, was accepted as a source of faith
* These + every other doctrinal definition relating to the Reformation were clarified
* The council also declared the Bible to consist of the Old Testament and the New Testament

result of the counter reformation

* No one and everyone?
* By the end of the 16th century, many of the abuses that had led to the Reformation had been abolished
* The Roman church was able to __win back__ many __followers__ in Europe
* Religious __conflicts__ persisted, and in the next century the Thirty Years’ War ravaged much of Europe

Ppl viewed the Church differently and many different religious __factions__ continued — many ppl never returned to Catholicism

major changes in Europe from 1500 onwards

* local loyalties → national culture + identity
* rural → urban
* increased population
* social mobility + democratic ideals increased
*  household output of peasants, artisans, merchants, and officials gave way to more complex **non-domestic forms of production**

science + religion

* senses and systemic investigation took over traditions and holy texts in terms of important
* shrunk religion’s sphere of influence