bio final

calorie

amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1 degree celsius

cellular respiration

Process that releases energy by breaking down glucose and other food molecules in the presence of oxygen

aerobic

Process that requires oxygen

Anaerobic

Process that does not require oxygen

Glycolysis

first step in cellular respiration, in which a molecule of glucose is broken into two molecules of pyruvic acid

NAD+

electron carrier involved in glycolysis

Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle)

second stage of cellular respiration, in which pyruvic acid is broken down into carbon dioxide in a series of energy-extracting reactions

matrix

Innermost compartment of the mitochondrion

cell division

Process by which a cell divides into two new daughter cells

asexual reproduction

process of reproduction involving a single parent that results in offspring that are genetically identical to the parent

sexual reproduction

type of reproduction in which cells from two parents unite to form the first cell of a new organism

Chromosomes

threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genetic information; in eukaryotes- nucleus, in prokaryotes- cytoplasm

chromatin

Substance found in eukaryotic chromosomes that consists of DNA tightly coiled around histones

cell cycle

series of events that cells go through as they grow and divide

Interphase

period of the cell cycle between cell divisions

mitosis

part of eukaryotic cell division during which the cell nucleus divides

Cytokinesis

division of the cytoplasm to form two separate daughter cells

Prophase

first and longest phase of mitosis in which the genetic material inside the nucleus condenses and the chromosomes become visible

chromatid

one of two identical "sister" parts of a duplicated chromosome

Centromere

Region of a chromosome where the two sister chromatids attach

Centrioles

structure in an animal cell that helps to organize cell division

metaphase

phase of mitosis in which the chromosomes line up across the center of the cell

anaphase

Phase of mitosis in which the chromosomes separate and move to opposite ends of the cell

Telophase

phase of mitosis in which the distinct individual chromosomes begin to spread out into a tangle of chromatin

growth factors

one of a group of external regulatory proteins that stimulate the growth and division of cells

cyclin

one of a family of proteins that regulates the cell cycle in eukaryotic cells

Apoptosis

process of programmed cell death

Cancer

disorder in which some of the body's cells lose the ability to control growth

tumor

mass of rapidly dividing cells that can damage surrounding tissue

embryo

developing stage of a multicellular organism

Differentiation

process in which cells become specialized in structure and function

totipotent

Cells that are able to develop into any type of cell found in the body.

Blastocyst

stage of early development in mammals that consists of a hollow ball of cells

Pluripotent

Cells that are capable of developing into most, but not all, of the body's cell types

stem cells

Unspecialized cells that can give rise to one or more types of specialized cells

Multipotent

cell with limited potential to develop into many types of differentiated cells

Genetics

The scientific study of heredity

Fertilization

Process in sexual reproduction in which male and female reproductive cells join to form a new cell

Trait

specific characteristic of an individual

Hybrid

Offspring of crosses between parents with different traits

gene

sequence of DNA that codes for a protein and thus determines a trait; passed from parent to offspring

Allele

Different forms of a gene

principle of dominance

Mendel's second conclusion, which states that some alleles are dominant and others are recessive

Segregation

Separation of alleles during gamete formation

Gametes

sex cells

Probability

likelihood that a particular event will occur

Homozygous

Having two identical alleles for a particular gene

Heterozygous

having two different alleles for a particular gene

Phenotype

physical characteristics of an organism

Genotype

genetic makeup of an organism

Punnett Square

diagram that can be used to predict the genotype and phenotype combinations of a genetic cross

independent assortment

One of Mendel's principles that states that genes for different traits can segregate independently during the formation of gametes

incomplete dominance

Situation in which one allele is not completely dominant over another allele (blend)

codominance

situation in which both alleles of a gene contribute to the phenotype of the organism (spots)

multiple alleles

A gene that has more than two alleles

polygenic trait

trait controlled by two or more genes

homologous

term used to refer to chromosomes in which one set comes from the male parent and one set comes from the female parent

diploid

term used to refer to a cell that contains two sets of homologous chromosomes

haploid

term used to refer to a cell that contains only a single set of genes

meiosis

process in which the number of chromosomes per cell is cut in half through the separation of homologous chromosomes in a diploid cell

tetrad

structure containing 4 chromatids that forms during meiosis

crossing-over

Process in which homologous chromosomes exchange portions of their chromatids during meiosis.

transformation

process in which one strain of bacteria is changed by a gene or genes from another strain of bacteria

bacteriophage

A virus that infects bacteria

base pairing

principle that bonds in DNA can form only between adenine and thymine and between guanine and cytosine

replication

process of copying DNA prior to cell division

DNA polymerase

principle enzyme involved in DNA replication

telomere

repetitive DNA at the end of a eukaryotic chromosome

RNA

single-stranded nucleic acid that contains the sugar ribose

Messenger RNA (mRNA)

type of RNA that carries copies of instructions for the assembly of amino acids into proteins from DNA to the rest of the cell

Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

type of RNA that combines with proteins to form ribosomes

Transfer RNA (tRNA)

type of RNA molecule that transfers amino acids to ribosomes during protein synthesis

transcription

synthesis of an RNA molecule from a DNA template

RNA polymerase

enzyme that links together the growing chain of RNA nucleotides during transcription using a DNA strand as a template

promoter

specific region of a gene where RNA polymerase can bind and begin transcription

intron

sequence of DNA that is not involved in coding for a protein

exon

expressed sequence of DNA; codes for a protein

polypeptide

long chain of amino acids that makes proteins

genetic code

collection of codons of mRNA, each of which directs the incorporation of a particular amino acid into a protein during protein synthesis

codon

group of 3 nucleotide bases in mRNA that specify a particular amino acid to be incorporated into a protein

translation

process by which the sequence of bases of an mRNA is converted into the sequence of amino acids of a protein

anticodon

group of three bases on a tRNA molecule that are complementary to an mRNA codon

mutation

change in the genetic material of a cell

point mutation

gene mutation in which a single base pair in DNA has been changed

frameshift mutation

mutation that shifts the "reading" frame of the genetic message by inserting or deleting a nucleotide

mutagen

A chemical or physical agent that interacts with DNA and causes a mutation.

Polyploidy

condition in which an organism has extra sets of chromosomes

genome

entire set of genetic information that an organism carries in its DNA

karyotype

micrograph of the complete diploid set of chromosomes grouped together in pairs, arranged in order of decreasing size

sex chromosomes

Chromosomes that determine the sex of an individual

Autosome

Any chromosome that is not a sex chromosome

sex-linked gene

gene located on a sex chromosome

Pedigree

chart that shows the presence or absence of a trait according to the relationships within a family across several generations

Nondisjunction

Error in meiosis in which homologous chromosomes fail to separate properly

evolution

Change over time; the process by which modern organisms have descended from ancient organisms

fossil

The preserved remains or traces of an organism that lived in the past

articial selection

selective breeding of plants and animals to promote the occurrence of desirable traits in offspring

adaptation

heritable characteristic that increases an organism's ability to survive and reproduce in an environment

fitness

how well an organism can survive and reproduce in its environment

natural selection

A process in which individuals that have certain inherited traits tend to survive and reproduce at higher rates than other individuals because of those traits.