Bio Test 1: T1 (1,2,3,4); T2(1,2)

Eukaryote

Cell with a nucleus and organelles

Prokaryote

Unicellular organism that lacks a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles

Streptococcus Salivarius

Microbe inhabiting upper respiratory tract and oral cavity

Staphylococcus Haemolyticus

Microbe, resides on skin, harmless on exterior, pathogenic if enters the bod

Bacteroides Thetaiotaomicron

Microbe, intestinal bacteria, makes enzymes to break down ingested plant mat

Enzyme

Protein that acts as a biological catalyst

Cell

Membrane bound structure containing macromolecules- basic form of life

Cell membrane

Bilayer of lipids surrounding a cell, separates internal from external env'ts to allow different chem. compositions, selectively permeable

Amphipath

Molecule that is hydrophobic and hydrophilic

Membrane fluidity

Ability of phospholipids in a membrane to move laterally (f,b,l,r), level varies in diff. membranes

High membrane permeability

More fluid, more unsaturated fatty acids, less cholesterol

Low membrane permeability

Less fluid, less unsaturated fatty acids, more cholesterol

Passive diffusion

No energy: down gradient
contact>crosses bilayer
(eg. lipid-soluble molecules, water, uncharged polar molecules, gasses)

Facilitated Diffusion

No energy: down gradient
proteins assist transmembrane movement
(eg. ions, hydrophilic molecules)

Active transport

Uses ATP: against gradient
ATP from hydrolysis
(eg. sodium-potassium pump)

Ossmosis

Water mvm't cross-membrane from less concentrated to more concentrated solution

Hypertonic

Higher concentration of solute (minor component)

Hypotonic

Lower concentration of solute (minor component)

Isotonic

Same solute concentration between solutions

Solute

Substance being dissolved (minor component)

Solvent

Substance in which the solute dissolves (major component)

Aquaporin

(Exclusively) water channel protein, concentration gradients dependant

Photosynthesis

Conversion of light en'gy > chem en'gy to be stored in bonds of carb molecules

Cellular Respiration

Release chem en'gy from carb bonds, partially capture it in ATP

ATP

Generated in mitochondria through breakdown of sugars, adenosine triphosphate

Mitochondria

Produces ATP and enzymes for protein synth., has own circular genome

Endosymbiotic Theory of Organelle Evolution

Some euk, organelles were once prok. cells that were engulfed creating a permanent and heritable relationship (eg. mitochondria, chloroplast)

Polymerization

Joining monomers to form a polymer

Polysaccharide

Macromolecule formed from monosaccharides (eg. starch, glycogen)

Uses for ATP

Mechanical work (contracting muscles), Transport work (active transport), Chemical work (building a large molecule)

Endomembrane system

Organelles and membranes in euks. that modify, package and transport most lipids and proteins

Macromolecule

Nucleic acids, proteins, polysaccharides, phospholipids

Saturated Lipid

Single bond, straight fatty acid chain, creates less fluid membrane

Unsaturated lipid

Double bond, bent fatty acid chain, creates more fluid membrane

Lipid raft

Group of saturated lipids and cholesterol on a mostly saturated membrane, lots of hydrophobic interactions

Fluid mosaic model

Model of membrane where molecules of proteins, carbs and lipids can move laterally in the bilayer

Easily permeable

gases, hydrophobic molecules (eg. O2, CO2, steroid hormones)

Medium permeable

Small uncharges polar molecules (eg. urea, glycerol)

Not permeable

Large, charged polar molecules (eg. glucose, sucrose, ions)

Glycolysis

Glucose in partially broken down into pyruvate, energy is transferred to ATP and reduced electron carriers

In:2 ATP Out:4 ATP, 2 NADH Net:2 ATP, 2 NADH

Glycolysis: In, Out, Net

Pyruvate oxidation

Pyruvate is oxidized to acetyl CoA producing reduced electron carriers

In:2 Pyruvate Out:2 CO2, 2 NADH, 2 Acetyl CoA

Pyruvate oxidation: in, out

Krebbs Cycle

Acetyl CoA is oxidized to CO2, energy is transferred to ATP and reduced electron carriers

2 ATP, 6 NADH, 2 FADH

Krebbs Cycle: out

Oxidative Phosphorylation

ahhh

FRAP

Fluorescent Recovery After Photobleaching: proteins are labelled w/ fluorescence, lazer removes fluorescence of a section, membrane recovery is observed

Microbiome

population of organisms/microbes in a certain environment

Human microbiome

Inherently dynamic pop'n of organisms and microbes in the human body

Klebsiella pneumoniae

Bac: Normal flora in mouth, skin and intestines, but can cause lung inflammation

Pseudomonas

Bac: Able to colonize many env'ts, form polysaccharide biofilms and resist most antibiotics

Eschericha coli

Bac: found in intestines, ban cause blody diarrhea, stomach cramps and vomiting (E.coli)

Clostridium difficile

Bac: causes inflammation of colon, death of healthy bac, colon damage, diarrhea, and antibiotic resistance3

Cholesterol in cell membrane

counteracts fluctuation of fluidity (eg. used in animals who hibernate so their cell membranes don't freeze)

Sodium-potassium pump

3 Sodium (Na+) out, 2 Potassium (K) in

Why are camel's humps made of fat

C57 H110 O6 Has LOTS of potential energy, also a source of water when metabolized (but not normally used for water production)

How do camels conserve water

Long nostrils to condense water and prevent water loss, very dry fecal matter

How do birds survive migration

Feed constantly before flight bc body fat is used for energy, sometimes sugars are tapped into

Bar headed geese adaptations

Larger lungs: more surface area and alveoli, better breathing patterns, higher affinity for O2, higher distribution of capillaries in lungs and muscles, more mitochondria in muscles

Energy for long flights: bug

They use lots of glucose in the first 15 mins, lipids after. If you're breaking down proteins you are starved!

Fred Neufeld 1920's

Virulent s-strain of streptococcus vs nonvirulent r-strain in mice

S-strain: virulent

Bacteria has smooth polysaccharide coating making it undetectable to antibodies or respiratory recognition sites, therefore able to reproduce and cause pneumonia

R-strain: nonvirulent

No polysaccharide coating, recognized by antibodies and destroyed by immune system

Fredrick Griffith 1928

Injects killed virulent bac and living virulent bac, killing a mouse showing that hereditary mat was shared

O Avery, M McCarty, C Macleod 1944

Add enzymes to kill sugars, lipids, RNA, proteins and DNA to test which help hereditary materials

Nucleotide

Phosphate group, 5 carbon sugar (DNA: H, RNA: hydroxyl), nitrogenous base

Covalent bond

Two atoms share electrons, requires energy to break

Noncovalent bond

No electrons are shared, relatively weak, (van der Waals), release energy when broken

Amino Acid

amino group on one end and a carboxyl group on the other, carbon, hydrogen, r group or side chain

Peptide bond

Covalent bond between amino acids, condensation (releases water)

Hydrolysis

Splits a molecule by adding water.

Monogenetic dissorder

Defect in one gene causing a problem (eg. CF)

Endoscope

Used for bronchoscopy, fibre optic camera mounted on end of long cable, sometimes has a suction

Cilia

Used to sweep, creating an undercurrent to move mucus and bacteria in airway and lungs

Goblet cells

Create mucus to trap dust and bacteria

Airway surface liquid

Used to allow for rhythmic beating/sweeping of cilia, must have adequate volume for mucocilary transport

ASL height and mucus hydration

Mediated by a balance of chloride out and sodium in across epithelial cells as they will draw water with them. In CF, there is hyper-absorption of sodium leaving not enough water for ASL and mucus

Pharmacochaperones

Drugs that use small molecules to wedge into miss-folded proteins and force them into the proper shape

Correctors

(inside the cell) Drugs which help mutated CFTR fold properly and locate to cell surface

Potentiaters

(at membrane) Drugs to help improve CFTR function to transport chloride (Cl-)

Cystic fibrosis transmembran regulator

CFTR

Lumacaftor

Example of CFTR corrector

Nontemplate strand

Coding strand, sense strand

Template strand

Noncoding strand, antisense strand

Holoenzyme

RNA polymerase (core enzyme) + sigma factor

Sigma

Facilitates RNA polym. binding to DNA, guides RNA polym. to promoters

Promoter

Sites on DNA template strand where transcription begins

Consensus Sequence

most common promoter nucleotide sequence recognized by a given RNA polymerase

-10 region

TATAAT

-35 region

TTGACA

Transcription factors

Recognize consensus sequence, mediate binding of RNA polym. to promoter, initiate transcription

RNA polymerase 1

Transcribes rRNA

RNA polymerase 2

code for proteins (mRNA synthesis)

RNA polymerase 3

transcribes tRNA and other small RNAs

Exons

expressed sequence of DNA, are translated

Introns

noncoding sequence in a eukaryotic gene, not translated

Intron splicing

Removes non-coding introns

5' cap

A 7-methylguanylate (-P-P-P) on 5' end on mRNA to protects from degradation, is a recognized binding site for ribosomes

3' Poly A tail

100-150 adenines on 3' end of mRNA to protect from degradation

UAA, UAG, UGA

Stop codons