Unit 1

What is human development?

The ways in which people grow, change, and stay the same throughout their lives, from conception to death.

What is the goal of studying human development in terms of description?

Observe behavior to describe children and adults.

What is the goal of studying human development in terms of explanation?

Understand or explain why observed behavior occurs.

What is the goal of human development in terms of prediction?

Educated guesses about future behavior.

What is the goal of human development in terms of intervention?

Use this knowledge of causes to change or control behavior.

What are the 3 Domains of Development?

Physical, cognitive, and socioemotional.

What is the physical domain?

Biological processes produce changes in physical development, health sensation, and perception.

What is the cognitive domain?

Changes in thought processes, knowledge, language, and intelligence.

What is the socioemotional domain?

Changes in relationships, self-concept, emotions, and personality.

What is age range for prenatal?

Conception to birth.

Describe the prenatal stage.

A single-celled organism undergoes rapid physical development, during which basic body structures and organs form, grow, and start functioning.

What is the age range for infancy and toddlerhood?

Birth to 2 years.

Describe infancy and toddlerhood.

There is physical growth, and the development of motor, perceptual, and intellectual skills. As they grow, children improve in language comprehension and use, problem-solving, self-awareness, and emotional control. They become more independent and develop an interest in interacting with other children and forming relationships with parents and others.

What is the age range of early childhood?

2 to 6 years old.

Describe early childhood.

As children grow, their muscles strengthen, and they become more adept at coordinating their bodies. There is improvement in memory, language, and imagination. Children become more independent and can better regulate their emotions. While family remains their primary social tie, children begin to form new relationships with peers and other children become increasingly important in their lives.

What is the age range of middle childhood?

6 to 11 years old.

Describe middle childhood.

As children grow older, growth slows, but strength and athletic ability increase significantly. They show progress in reasoning, memory, reading, and arithmetic skills. With cognitive advancement and social experience, they have a more sophisticated self-understanding than younger children. Friendships develop and peers and group memberships become more significant in their lives.

What is the age range for adolescence?

11 to 18 years old.

Describe adolescence.

During adolescence, there is rapid physical growth, and sexual maturity develops. While some immature thinking may persist, adolescents can reason in sophisticated and adult-like ways. Adolescents are driven to learn about themselves and start the process of discovering their identity, separate from their parents. Peer groups become increasingly significant during this period.

What is the age range of early adulthood?

18 to 40 year olds.

Describe early adulthood.

Physical condition peaks and then declines slightly with time, influenced by lifestyle choices. Most young adults join the workforce, form long-term bonds with spouses, and become parents, but the timing of these transitions varies. In Western industrialized societies, the transition to adulthood is often extended, spanning from ages 18 to 25 and sometimes as late as age 29.

What is the age range of middle adulthood?

40 to 65 years old.

Describe middle adulthood.

In middle adulthood, individuals may experience changes in vision, hearing, physical stamina, and sexuality. Basic mental abilities, expertise, and practical problem-solving skills reach their peak. Adults may undergo career changes and family transitions that require them to further understand themselves. They may help children become independent, adapt to an empty nest, and care for elderly parents.

What is the age range of adulthood?

65 years+

Describe late adulthood.

Most older adults are healthy and active, though reaction time slows, and there may be a decline in some aspects of memory and intelligence. However, expertise and wisdom tend to increase and compensate for these losses. Older adults tend to maintain close friendships with old friends as a source of support. They adjust to retirement, changes in health, and personal losses while searching for meaning in their lives.

Describe death.

Death is a process that involves the cessation of heartbeat, circulation, breathing, and brain activity. The death of a person causes changes in their social context, and family and friends must adjust to and accept the loss.

What are the ways we conceptualize age?

Chronological, biological, and social.

What is chronological age?

Number of years since birth.

What is biological age?

In terms of biological health.

What is social age?

In terms of society’s age expectations.

What is a life span?

The longest that a human being can live.

What is a life expectancy?

How long a person is expected to live.

What are age-graded normative influences?

Typical for a specific age.

What are maturational normative age-graded influences?

Fixed in time.

What are examples of maturational normative age-graded influences?

Starting school, puberty, or losing baby teeth.

What are social normative age-graded influences?

Timing is flexible.

What are examples of social normative age-graded influences?

Marriage or parenthood.

What are normative history-graded influences?

Events that shape attitudes of a historical generation.

What is a historical generation?

A group that experiences an event at a formative time.

What is a cohort?

A group that is born around the same time.

What are non-normative life events?

Unusual events that have a major impact on an individual’s life.

What are typical events at atypical times?

Losing a parent when you’re a child.

What are atypical events?

Someone winning the lottery.

What is meant by development is lifelong?

Research examines changes from conception to old age.

What is meant by development is multidimensional?

There’s different aspects of development like physical, cognitive, and socioemotional.

What is meant by development being multidirectional?

Highlights the importance of embracing diversity and recognizing that there are many different pathways to healthy development throughout the lifespan.

What is meant by development being plastic?

Many abilities can improve with training or practice.

What is meant by development being multidisciplinary?

Researchers from many disciplines conduct research relevant to understanding human development.

What is meant by development being influenced by multiple contexts?

When and where the person develops.

What is continuous change?

Some aspects of development unfold slowly and gradually over time.

What is discontinuous change?

Abrupt change with individuals of various ages.

What does it mean to be active in development?

They interact with and influence the world around them.

What does it mean to be passive in development?

They are shaped out by the world around them.

What is nature in development?

Genetics.

What is nurture in development?

The environment.

What is a theory?

A way of organizing a set of observations or facts into a comprehensive explanation of how something works.

What is a hypothesis?

Proposed explanations for a given phenomenon that can be tested by research.

What is mechanistic model?

Individuals are reactive and machinelike.

What is organismic model?

Children set their own development in motion.

What are the bi-directional influences on development?

People’s actions and the environment influences one another.

What are the two psychodynamic theories?

Freud and Erikson.

What is the main concept of Freud’s psychosexual theory?

Behavior is driven by unconscious impulses that are outside of our awareness.

What are the main contributions of Freud’s psychosexual theory?

Focus on childhood, family relationships, and emotional development.

What are the criticisms of Freud’s psychosexual stages?

Not empirical, didn’t actually study children, and focused too much on sexual motivations.

What is the main concept of Erikson’s PsychosocialTheory?

The social world, society, and culture shape development.

What are the contributions of Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory?

Lifespan theory, positive view, and includes contextual or cultural view.

What is the main criticism for Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory?

Not empirical.

What are the Behavior/Learning Theories?

Classical conditioning and operant conditioning.

What is classical conditioning?

A person or animal learns to associate certain stimuli with physiological responses.

What were Pavlov’s experiments?

He rang a bell before giving dogs food; eventually, the dogs salivated at the sound of the bell when the association was made.

What was Watson’s Little Albert experiment?

The experimenters left Albert alone with the rat, but each time he reached for it, they would hit a hammer against metal. After several pairings, experimenters only showed Albert the rat. This sight alone caused Albert to cry.

What is operant conditioning?

The consequences of behavior influence future behavior.

What is reinforcement?

Increase the likelihood of behavior will be repeated.

What is positive reinforcement?

Adding a reward.

What is negative reinforcement?

Removing something aversive.

What is punishment?

Decreases the likelihood behavior will be repeated.

What is positive punishment?

Adding something aversive.

What is negative punishment?

Removing something plesant.

What is the main concept of Albert Bandura’s social learning theory?

People’s thought and feels influence their behavior.

What is observational learning?

People learn by watching others.

What is reciprocal determinism?

Individuals and the environment interact and influence each other.

What was the Bobo Doll experiment?

People acted differently towards a Bobo doll, and the children would imitate what they saw.

What are the contributions of behavior/learning theories?

Empirical evidence.

What is the criticisms of learning theories?

Developmental psychologists often disagree with the view that organisms are passive in their development.

What are the cognitive theories?

Cognitive Developmental Theories, Information Processing Theory, and Sociocultural System Theory.

What is the main concept of Piaget’s cognitive developmental theory?

Children and adults are active explorers of their world, learning by interacting with the world around them, and organizing what they learn into cognitive schemas.

What are schemas?

Concepts, ideas, or ways of interacting with the world.

What are the two processes for learning?

Assimilation and accommodation.

What is assimilation?

Incorporate new experiences into existing schemata.

What is accomodation?

Modifying existing schema to fit new experience.

What is the contribution of Piaget’s cognitive developmental theory?

Focused on distinctive ways infants and children think.

What are the criticisms of Piaget’s cognitive developmental theory?

Ignored emotional, social, and cultural factors in development.

What is the main point of Information Processing Theory?

Studies the steps in cognitions.

What is the role of maturation?

Changes in brain and nervous system.

What is the role of experinces?

Learning from interacting with the world.

What are contributions of Information Processing Theories?

Empirical and predicts and behavior well.

What are criticisms of Information Processing Theories?

Computer-model is too simplistic, lab studies may lack realism.

What was the main point of Zygotsky’s sociocultural theory?

Emphasize the importance of culture in development.

What is the Zone of Proximal Development?

The gap between what the child can do alone and with assistance.

What is scaffolding?

More skilled individuals guide children to acquire knowledge and skills.