AP Psych Unit 3 Vocab

Cross-Sectional study

Compares people of different ages at the same time

Longitudinal Study

Follows + retests the same group of people over time

Teratogen

Chemicals or viruses that can cause harm to a developing embryo or fetus

Maturation

Development of the brain that enables fine and gross motor development

Rooting reflex

a baby's tendency, when touched on the cheek, to turn toward the touch, open the mouth, and search for the nipple

Visual cliff

process to tell if a baby has a sense of depth

Critical period

a specific time in development when certain skills or abilities are most easily learned

Imprinting

the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life

Puberty

the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing

Primary sex characteristic

Directly involved in the development of sex organs and external genitals (Testes, Ovaries)

Secondary sex characteristic

Not directly involved in sexual reproduction; aids in sexual attraction. (Breasts and hips)

Menarche

the first menstrual period for a woman

Spermarche

boys' first ejaculation

Menopause

gradual ending of menstruation, leading to infertility

Sex

Biologically influenced characteristics by which people define male, female, and intersex.

Gender

Attitudes, feelings, and behaviors that a given culture associates with a biological sex

Jean Piaget

developmental psychologist who formulated the 4 stage theory of development of children

Schema

Mental frameworks that help us organize stimuli

Assimilation

Attempting to fit new info into an existing schema

Accomodation

Changing/revising your schema for new info

1. Sensorimotor stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to 2 years old) where babies take in the world through their senses + actions (Looking, hearing, touching, tasting)

Object permenance

Knowing things continue to exist even when not seen (Develops at 6 months)

2. Preoperational

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to 7 years ) during which a child learns mental symbols and engages in pretend play (imagination) But lack Conservation and Reversibility.

Conversation

Properties like mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in an objects form.

Reversibility

principle that objects can be changed, but then returned back to their original form or condition

Animism

the belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities and are capable of action

Egocentrical

Inability to understand someone else's Point of View

Theory of mind

ability to understand that others have their own beliefs, desires, intentions, and perspectives that are different from yours

3. Concrete operational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from 7 to 11 years ) during where children master conservation + reversibility, can perform mathematical transformations and think logically about physical things

Logical thinking

the mental ability to reason soundly and systematically on the basis of known information

Systematic thinking

Using a methodical, step-by-step procedure used to achieve a solution.

4. Formal operational stage

beginning at the age of 12 and extending through adulthood; mature reasoning capabilities, problem solving, thinking hypothetically, and able to understand abstract concepts (Love, Justice, Equality, etc)

Lev Vygotsky

most famous for social development theory (of child cognitive development), Argued that children learn from advanced people (Mentors), Language is important

Scaffolding

Providing temporary assistance to children until they can do it themselves

Zone of proximal development

Phase of learning where a child can do something with assistance

Crystallized intelligence

Accumulated knowledge that stays stable with age

Fluid intelligence

Speedy problem solving which declines with age

Dementia

a slowly progressive decline in mental abilities, including memory, thinking, and judgment, that is often accompanied by personality changes

Phonemes

smallest distinctive sound unit (Bat = 3 phenomes)

Morphemes

Smallest unit that carries meaning (Prefixes + Suffixes)

Stages of language development

1. Cooing (6 weeks old + Vowels) 2. Babbling (6-10 months + constants and vowels) 3. Single-word (10-18 months) 4. Telegraphic speech (2 years, multiple words but not sentences)

Overgeneralization

Drawing broad conclusions from a single event or limited evidence, often using words like "Always" or "Never"

Ecological Systems theory

different environments we encounter affect our cognitive, social, and biological development

Microsystem

Immediate environment (Home + School life)

Mesosystem

Connections (Parents + peers)

Exosystem

Indirect environment (Parent's workplace)

Macrosystem

Social and cultural values (Religion or politics)

Chronosystem

Changes over time (Life stages like moving or economic recession)

Authoritarian parenting

Strict, demanding, punishment, leads to child having low self esteem and bad at socializing

Permissive parenting

Few rules + boundaries, gives into child's desires, tries to be friend > parent. Leads to children being aggressive + immature.

Neglectful parenting

Parents are disengaged, expect and invest little, leads to children that are poor at academics and social outcomes

Authoritative

Demanding but responsive parents, sets rules and boundaries but are reasonable, children have high self esteem, regulation, and helpfulness.

Secure attachment style

an attachment style characterized by trust, a lack of concern with being abandoned, happy and explorative. Mom is quick to be responsive, sensitive, and consistent

insecure-avoidant attachment

a pattern of attachment in which an infant avoids connection with the caregiver, seeming distant and non explorative. Mom is disengaged and distant

insecure-anxious attachment

Not exploratory, is anxious, insecure, and angry. Mom is inconsistent (Responsive or neglectful) = Lack of trust

insecure-disorganized attachment

a pattern of attachment in which an infant seems confused or apprehensive and shows contradictory behavior, is depressed, angry, and completely passive. Mom is extreme and erratic

Temperament

Emotional reactivity (Influences attachment). Can be easy, difficult, or slow to warm up to.

Social clock

the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement

Parallel play

activity in which children play side by side without interacting

Imaginary audience

(Adolescent ego-centrism) believing they are the center of attention and other are judging them (Self-consciousness)

Personal Fable

(Adolescent ego-centrism) belief that they are unique and immune to consequences

Emerging adulthood

a period from about age 18 to the mid-twenties, when many in Western cultures are no longer adolescents but have not yet achieved full independence as adults

Adverse childhood experiences (ACE)

Potentially traumatic events occurring between 0-17 years old

Identity status

1. Diffusion (Low commitment/low exploration)

2. Foreclosure (High commitment/low exploration)

3. Moratorium (Low commitment/high exploration)

4. Achievement (High commitment/high exploration)

Associative learning

Learning that two events occur together (2 stimuli or behavior + Consequence)

Classical conditioning

a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

Naturally and automatically triggers a response from an organism

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

Unlearned, naturally occurring response to an unconditioned stimulus

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

Previously neutral stimulus that an organism learns to respond to after being paired with the UCS

Conditioned Response (CR)

LEARNED response to a previously neutral stimulus

Extinction

the weakening of a conditioned response when the UCS no longer follows the CS

Spontaneous recovery

Reappearance of an extinct CR after time has passed

Stimulus discrimination

Ability to distinguish between the CS and other stimuli (Not responding to other stimuli that were not paired with UCS)

Stimulus generalization

Tendency for stimuli that are similar to the CS to also elicit similar responses (jumping at balloons popping to cars crashing)

Taste aversion

Negative responses to certain foods (associating foods with illnesses)

Higher order conditioning

CS is paired with a new NS, creating a second (weaker) CS (ringing bell and flashing light while giving food)

Counter-conditioning

a behavior therapy procedure that conditions new responses to stimuli that trigger unwanted behaviors; based on classical conditioning (petting a rat and then banging a metal car behind ones head)

Habituation

an organism's decreasing response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to it

Operant conditioning

Learning to associate behavior with a consequence by increasing or decreasing the behavior

Reinforcement

Positive: Increasing the behavior by ADDING a pleasant stimulus.

Negative: Increasing the behavior by REMOVING an unpleasant stimulus.

Punishment

Positive: Decreasing the behavior by ADDING a negative stimulus

Negative: Decreasing the behavior by REMOVING a pleasant stimulus

Primary vs Secondary reinforcer

Primary: naturally reinforcing stimulus, one that satisfies a biological need (Food)

Secondary: Stimulus we are conditioned to find reinforcing, gained through classical conditioning (Money)

Reinforcement schedules

Fixed-Ratio - Reinforced after a set number of behaviors

Variable-Ratio - Reinforced after a random number of responses

Fixed-interval - Reinforced after a fixed amount of time.

Variable interval - Reinforced at a random time

Shaping

Gradually guiding behavior toward closer approximations of the desired behavior

Instinctive drift

Tendency of a learned behavior to gradually revert back to biologically predisposed patterns

Superstitious behavior

Behavior learned through coincidental association with reinforcement

Social learning (Observational)

Learning through observing others.

Vicarious conditioning

Learning does not have to involve personal experience

Modeling

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior. (Boho doll experiment)

Insight

A sudden solution to a problem that occurs without any association with a consequence or model.

Cognitive map

a mental representation of the layout of one's environment

Latent learning

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it