A+P exam #1

Anatomy vs Physiology

Anatomy: form, structure, relationship

Physiology: function, #, body dynamic/animated workings

Levels of organization

Responsiveness/excitability

reflexes, ability to sense changes in environment and respond to, seen with all body cells just different with kind, helps with homeostasis

Multicellular organisms vs unicellular for digestion

multi- breaks down into simple molecules, goes to blood and body cells, cells work together, if group is indispensable injury/loss can disable/destroy the body 

Uni- cells are digestion factory

Metabolism- what are the types (3)?

all chem reactions in body cells that are regulated by hormones from glands

catabolism- breaking substances into simple building blocks

anabolism- building blocks → more complex substances 

cellular respiration- nutrients + O2 → ATP

Why is body temperature a survival need? 

if too low reactions decrease and eventually stop and vise versa, muscular system releases the most heat  

Why is atmospheric pressure a survival need? 

force that air exerts on the body, need for proper breathing/gas exchange

high altitudes- decrease in AP and air is thin so gas exchange may be inadequate for cell respiration

What are the three plant derived nutrients that we need? What do they do for us?

carbs- many energy fuel for cells

vitamins/minerals- needed for chem reactions and O2 transport in cells, calcium (mineral) help make bones strong and is needed for blood clotting

What are the two animal derived nutrients that we need? What do they do for us?

proteins+ fats- help build cell structure

fats- reserve for energy-rich fuel

all homeostatic control mechanisms involve at least _ components working together to control the ____

3, variable 

Control Center

determines set point (level for variable to be maintained), compares input to set to and determines response if needed

afferent pathway → approaches CC → exits to efferent pathway

Effector

carries out response for CC to stimulus, reduces so control process stops and vise versa

Negative feedback mechanism 

most homeostatic control, output shuts off/reduces go effects of stimulus, of in opposite direction to get ideal value

ex. heart rate, bp, breathing, O2, CO2, mineral blood levels

Neural control mechanism example 

the withdraw reflex 

hormonal mechanism example

control of blood sugar- if high pancreas (CC) secretes insulin→ tells cells to absorb more glucose 

if low stimulus for insulin release ends 

Positive feedback loop 

aka cascades, initial response increases go stimulus which leads in increase in response, continues and amplifies og stimulus, control of infrequent events w/o continuous adjustments w/ only local effects ex. labor contractions, blood clotting 

What is homeostatic imbalance? 

when neg feedback mechanisms are overwhelmed and destructive pos feedback takes over because when older systems are less efficient/internal environment becomes less and less stable → increase in risk of illness/aging changes/disease

Why use anatomical position (2)?

For reference, so radius and ulna are parallel, standing posterior with palms posterior and feet slightly apart

oblique sections

diagonal cuts between horizontal and vertical planes

What is a parasaggital cut?

offset median/midsaggital cut 

mediastinum surrounds ______, ________, and other _______ organs 

esophagus, trachea, thoracic 

What two cavities are in the dorsal body cavity?

cranial cavity, vertebral cavity

What two cavities are in the ventral body cavity? What are their sub types?

Thoracic cavity- super mediastinum, pericardial, pleural

Abdomino- pelvic cavity- abdominal (organs of digestive), pelvic (reproductive, digestive, urinary, rectum)

What divides the ventral cavity into the thoracic cavity and abdominal- pelvic cavity?

Diaphragm

What separates living organisms from nonliving objects?

maintain boundaries, movement, responsiveness, digestion, metabolism, excretion, reproduction, growth

What are the two different kinda of closed serous membranes? How do you name serous membranes? 

Visceral (covers organs), parietal (lines cavities)

type of covering+specific cavity

What are serous membranes? What is serous fluid?

thin, double layer membrane of organs/cavities in ventral body cavity

fluid- lubricates, secreted by most membranes

What are the three names of cavity that are used to name the type of serous membranes?

Peritoneum (adomino-pelvic), pericardial, pleura

This is a picture of tissue cells and part of blood vessels. Cell nutrients and wastes are exchanged across important boundaries between fluid compartments. Name the boundary (a) and fluid in the compartments (b and c).

a- cell membrane

b- interstitial fluid

c- blood plasma

Why is the positive food back loop called that? What event stops it?

Changes proved in the same direction to amplify or stimulus, stops when problem is fixed (ex blood clotting)

Is thirst a part of a negative or positive feedback loop?

Negative because ur constantly trying to keep in check, balance beam

What are the three types of cuts

What organs are in each quadrant?

What’s the name of the 9 regions? What organs are in each?

What is the function of muscle tissue (2)? What are the 3 subsets?

Attaches to bone, movement by contracting (pulls bones/skin), cardiac, tightly packed well vascularized cells, skeletal (muscles to bone), smooth (in walls of hollow organs)

How does muscle tissue contract?

uses myofilaments (network of actin+myocin)

Skeletal muscle tissue- description, function, location 

packed by CT in organs

Cardiac muscle tissue- description, function, location 

Smooth muscle tissue- description, function, location

Nervous tissue- description, function, location  

neurons- highly specialized to respond to stimuli using dendrites

supporting cells- are glial cells/neuroglia, nonconducting, support, insulate, protects

What are the functions of epithelial tissue (6)?

creates boundaries, protect, absorb, filtrate, secrete, excretes, sensory reception, lining of digestive tract/other hollow organs, glands, skin surface 

What are the functions of connective tissue? Where is it seen? What is it made of?

supports, insulates, stores, transports, protects, binds other tissues together

bones, tendons, fat and other soft padding tissue,

composed of cells, ground substance and fibers

2 main characteristics of CT

1) extracellular matrix= ground substance+fibers, nonliving, separates living tissue cells, helps w/ support/tension

2) common origin from mesenchyme an embryonic tissue

What are the three type of CT fibers? What protein is each made of? What does it contribute to the CT function?

1) collagen- made from collagen, gives strength

2) elastic- made from elastin, for stretch and recoil

3) reticular- made from diff types of collagen, surrounds and supports

What do the suffixes of CT cell types mean? What does each of them do? 

-blast= immature cell- miotic, secretes ground substance/fibers and mature

-cyte= mature cell- maintain matrix health, can go back to blast to repair/regenerate 

What are the 8 types of CT cells? 

fibroblasts (CT proper), chondroblasts (cartilage), osteoblasts (bone), hematopoietic stem cell, adipocytes, WBC, mast cells, macrophages  

Areolar loose CT

function- wraps/cusions organs, has macrophages, helps w/ inflammation, holds/conveys tissue fluid

location- under epi, packages organs, surrounds capillaries

Adipose loose CT

function- reserve food fuel, insulates, supports/protects organs

location- in subcutaneous tissue, around kidneys/eyes, in ab and breasts 

Regular dense CT 

function- attaches muscle to bone/muscle or bone to bone, withstands stress from one direction

location- tendons, most ligaments, aponeuroses

Elastic dense CT

function- recoil after stretching, maintains flow of blood through arteries

location- walls of large arteries, in ligaments in vertebral column, walls of bronchial tubes 

Hyaline cartilage CT 

function- supports/reinforces, resilient cushion, resists compressive stress

location- embryonic skeleton, ends of long bones, costal cartilage, cartilage in nose/trachea/larynx 

Elastic cartilage CT

function- maintains structure shape w/ flexibility 

location- external ear, epiglottis 

Fibrocartilage CT 

function- tensile strength, absorbs compressive shock 

location- intervertebral discs, pubic symphysis, discs of knee joint 

Macrophages 

devour foreign material/dead tissue cells, in loose CT, bone marrow, lymphoid tissue, in CT/matrix

Mast cells

cluster on blood vessels, detect foreign microorganisms and initiate inflammatory response to cytoplasm 

types of CT

What are the characteristics is epithelial tissue (7)?

Highly/tightly cellular in sheets, polar, avascular (needs nutrients to diffuse from CT), cell junctions, supported by connective tissue, innervated (has nerves), highly regenerative

Basal lamina

part of basement membrane between ET and CT, adjacent to basal surface, thin supporting sheet, noncellular, adhesive w/ glycoproteins/fine collagen fibers excretes by epi cells, selective filter, scaffolding for epi cells to repair wounds

Reticular lamina

part of basement membrane, deeper than basal lamina, extracellular material w/ collagen protein fibers from underlying CT

How are the epi cells sheets help together (2)

cell junctions- prevent substances from leaking through space

desmosomes- keep cells from pulling apart

Epithelial tissue is the only type with polarity (apical and basal surface). Why is this important?

For protection and to be best at different jobs

apical= open to world/internal organ, is smooth/slick or has microvilli

basal= attached to underlying CT 

Microvilli

on some ET, finger like extensions of plasma membrane, increase surface area for absorption/secretion,

Motile cilia 

on some ET, propel substances along free surface 

Stratified epithelia are built for protection or to resist abrasion. What are simple epithelia better at?

absorption, secretion, filtration

What are the three types of epithelial cells?

Cuboidal , squamous, columnar

How do you name types of epithelial tissue?

amount of layers + shape of cells

simple= 1 layer

stratified= 1+ layers 

Stratified squamous- function/location 

protects underlying tissue in high abrasion area

nonkeratinized= moist linings of esophagus, mouth, vagina

keratinized= epidermis, dry epithelium 

Simple columnar- function/location 

absorption, secretion of mucus/enzymes/etc, ciliated type propels mucus/reproductive cells by ciliary action

nonciliated- stomach-rectum, gallbladder, excretory ducts of some glands

ciliated- small bronchi, uterine tubes, some parts of uterus

Simple cuboidal- function/location 

secretion/absorption 

kidney tubules, ducts/secretory portions of small glands, ovary surface

Simple squamos- function/location 

allows materials to pass by diffusion/filtration where protection isn’t important, secretes lubricating substances in serosae

kidney glomeruli, air sacs, lining of heart/blood vessels/lymphatic vessels/serosae

What is the job of the endocrine glands? Are there ducts?

Release hormones in body that travel in blood, no ducts

Exocrine vs. endocrine glands

exo- to external skin/cavities, has ducts, in mucous, sweat, oil, salivary glands, liver, pancreas

endo- internal, no ducts, produces hormones, in digestive tract lining (mucosa), brain

What are the two types of exocrine glands?

Unicellular (goblet cells that produce mucin) and multicellular

How are multicellular exocrine glands classified?

according to the structure of their ducts and secretory regions

What are the two types of secretion for exocrine glands? How does it work? What glands go through these processes?

Merocrine= secrete via exocytosis (active process of vesicles to to surface and release), one cell can do multiple times, ex. salivary glands in mouth

Holocrine= cell ruptures to release secretion and a bit of cell fragments, makes new cells after, seen with only sebaceous glands on hair follicles

3 types of membranes

1) mucous membranes- lines open body cavities

2) serous membranes- line closed body cavities/organs

3) cutaneous membranes- skin