sociology exam 1

The Sociological Imagination

understanding how your individual life is shaped by the world around you

ex. you may think that poverty is a personal issue but the sociological imagination will allow you to realize it is actually due to external sociatal factors. 

Personal Troubles vs. Public Issues

• Personal Troubles are individual problems that affect a person’s private life. They happen within a person’s character or immediate relationships.

  • Example: One person losing their job because they were often late or unmotivated.

• Public Issues are larger social problems that affect many people and come from the structure of society. They go beyond the individual and relate to how society is organized.

  • Example: High unemployment rates caused by an economic recession or company layoffs.

Social Contexts

Your thoughts, actions, and opportunities are influenced by these around you — such as your family, school, community, religion, social class, and historical time period.

Examples:

• Growing up in a wealthy vs. poor neighborhood affects access to education and healthcare.

Individualizing Mindset/Frame

It means blaming or crediting individuals without considering how society affects their situation.

Example:

• Saying someone is poor because they’re “lazy”

structure

is the “invisible framework” of society that organizes life and influences how people act.

Example:

• Education systems decide what knowledge is valued.

• Social class affects job opportunities.

Agency

the ability of individuals to make their own choices and act independently, even within the limits set by society

Example:

• Choosing your career, friends, or beliefs

• But your options might still be limited by structure (like money, gender expectations, or social class).

Social Theories

Social Theories are ideas or frameworks that help sociologists explain how society works — why people behave the way they do, how social order is maintained, and how change happens.

A social theory is like a “lens” for understanding the patterns and problems in society.

Paradigms

are broad perspectives or worldviews that guide how sociologists study and understand society.

They act like big-picture frameworks — helping researchers decide what questions to ask, what methods to use, and how to interpret social behavior.

Symbolic Interactonism

Symbolic Interactionism is a sociological perspective that focuses on small-scale, everyday interactions and how people create, interpret, and give meaning to symbols in social life.

Conflict Theory

is a sociological perspective that focuses on power, inequality, and competition in society.

• Wealth inequality: Laws and policies may favor the rich, keeping the poor at a disadvantage.

• Gender inequality: Patriarchy gives men more power in workplaces and politics.

• Labor disputes

Structural Functionalism

• Each part of society (institutions, norms, roles) has a function that contributes to the overall stability.

• Social order is maintained when all parts perform their roles properly.

• Change happens slowly to preserve stability.

Norms

Norms are the shared rules or expectations about how people are supposed to behave in a society or group.

Key Ideas:

• Norms guide behavior and help maintain social order.

• They can be formal (written laws) or informal (unspoken social rules).

• Norms vary by culture, group, and situation.

Examples:

• Formal norm: Traffic laws (stop at a red light).

• Informal norm: Saying “please” and “thank you.”

• Cultural norm: Bowing in Japan as a greeting.

Culture

Culture is the shared beliefs, values, customs, behaviors, and material objects that define a group or society.

Key Ideas:

• Culture shapes how people think, act, and interact.

• It includes language, traditions, religion, art, food, and technology.

• Culture is learned, shared, and passed down from generation to generation.

Examples:

• Language: English in the U.S., Hindi in India.

• Traditions: Thanksgiving in the U.S., Diwali in India.

• Beliefs/Values: Respect for elders, freedom of speech, individualism.

• Material culture: Clothing, tools, smartphones, buildings

Folkways

are a type of informal norm that guide everyday, casual behaviors in a society.

Key Ideas:

• Folkways are customs or habits that people are expected to follow, but breaking them is usually not severely punished.

• They help society run smoothly by setting expectations for routine behavior.

Examples:

• Saying “please” and “thank you.”

• Dressing appropriately for school or work.

• Shaking hands when meeting someone in some cultures.

Mores

are stronger social norms that are considered morally significant and essential to the well-being of society.

Key Ideas:

• Mores carry serious consequences if broken, sometimes even legal punishment.

• They reflect a society’s core values and ethics.

• Breaking mores often leads to social disapproval or sanctions.

Examples:

• Cheating in exams or lying in court → violates trust and ethics.

• Stealing or assaulting someone → morally wrong and legally punishable.

Taboos

Taboos are the strongest type of social norms, describing behaviors that are completely forbidden in a society.

Laws

are formal norms that are written and enforced by the government to regulate behavior in society.

Heirarchy

Hierarchy refers to a system of ranking people or groups in society based on power, status, or authority.

Key Ideas:

• Hierarchies organize society so people know who has more influence or control.

Social/Class Conflict

is a concept from Conflict Theory that focuses on the struggle between different social classes over resources, power, and privileges.

Key Ideas:

• Society is made up of groups with unequal access to wealth, status, and power.

• The conflict between the rich (bourgeoisie) and poor (proletariat) drives social change.

• Inequality often leads to tension, competition, and sometimes revolutions.

Status

Status refers to a person’s social position or rank in society or a group.

Roles

are the expected behaviors, duties, and responsibilities associated with a particular status in society.

Key Ideas:

• While status is your position, role is how you are supposed to behave in that position

Role Set

A Role Set is the collection of all the roles associated with a single status.

Key Ideas:

• Every status comes with multiple roles depending on who you interact with.

• The role set shows the variety of expectations linked to one status.

Role Conflict

Role Conflict occurs when a person experiences clashing demands from two or more roles they occupy at the same time.

Key Ideas:

• Happens when different statuses have conflicting expectations.

• Can cause stress, tension, or difficulty in fulfilling responsibilities.

Examples:

• A working parent has a meeting at work but also needs to attend their child’s school event.

Role Strain

occurs when a person has difficulty meeting the multiple expectations of a single role.

Key Ideas:

• Unlike role conflict (conflict between different roles), role strain happens within one role.

• Can cause stress or frustration when trying to satisfy all the demands.

Institutions

Institutions are established and organized systems in society that shape behavior and meet basic social needs.

Key Ideas:

• Institutions provide structure, rules, and roles that guide how people behave.

• They help maintain social order and stability.

• Examples include family, education, religion, government, economy, and healthcare.

Examples:

• Family: Socializes children, provides emotional support.

• Education system: Teaches knowledge, skills, and societal values.

• Government: Creates laws, maintains order, provides public services.

• Religion: Offers moral guidance and a sense of community.

Manifest Functions

are the intended and recognized consequences of a social institution or action.

Key Ideas:

• They are deliberate and obvious purposes that help society function.

Latent Functions

Latent Functions are the unintended or hidden consequences of a social action or institution.

Key Ideas:

• They are not obvious or planned, but still affect society.

• Part of structural functionalism: even unintended consequences can help society function.

Social dysfunction

Social Dysfunction refers to the negative consequences of a social institution, action, or pattern that disrupts or harms society.

Key Ideas:

• Opposite of social functions (manifest or latent).

• Occurs when something interferes with social stability, cohesion, or well-being.

• Can be intended or unintended, but the result is harmful or destabilizing.

Examples:

• Crime: Undermines social order and safety.

• Corruption in government: Reduces trust and fairness in society.

Social Cohesion

Social Cohesion is the degree to which members of a society feel connected, united, and work together.

Key Ideas:

• It reflects trust, cooperation, and shared values among people.

• High social cohesion → society is stable, peaceful, and collaborative.

• Low social cohesion → society experiences conflict, division, or disorder.

The Looking-Glass Self

The Looking-Glass Self is a concept by Charles Horton Cooley that explains how we develop our self-image based on how we think others see us.

Key Ideas:

• Our sense of self comes from social interactions, not just from within ourselves.

• It involves three steps:

  1. We imagine how we appear to others.

  2. We imagine how others judge us.

  3. We develop feelings about ourselves based on what we think others think (pride, shame, confidence, etc.).

Significant Others

are the people whose opinions and behaviors have the most influence on our self-concept and social development.

Key Ideas:

• Usually close family members, friends, or mentors.

• They shape how we see ourselves, our values, and our behavior.

Reference Group

A Reference Group is a group that individuals use as a standard to evaluate themselves, their behavior, and their attitudes.

Key Ideas:

• It may or may not be a group you actually belong to.

• Shapes values, goals, and self-image.

• People compare themselves to the group to measure success or behavior.

Examples:

• A professional organization influences how a person dresses or behaves at work.

Generalized Other

is a concept by George Herbert Mead that refers to the common expectations, norms, and attitudes of the larger society that an individual internalizes.

Key Ideas:

• Helps people understand how society expects them to behave.

• Develops through socialization and interaction with others.

• Unlike significant others, it represents the broader community, not specific individuals.

Examples:

• A child learns to wait their turn in line because society values fairness.

• Following traffic rules, respecting laws, or queuing in public → reflects understanding of society’s expectations.

Dramaturgy

Dramaturgy is a concept by Erving Goffman that views social life as a theater where people perform roles in everyday interactions.

Key Ideas:

• People present themselves differently depending on the audience (like actors on a stage).

• Social interactions involve “front stage” and “back stage” behaviors.

  • Front stage: How you act in public to make a good impression.

  • Back stage: How you act in private when no one is watching.

Civil/Tactful Innatention

is a concept from Erving Goffman that describes the social practice of ignoring certain behaviors or details in public to allow others to maintain privacy and face.

Key Ideas:

• Helps people avoid embarrassment or awkwardness in social interactions.

• It’s a way of showing respect by not drawing attention to potentially sensitive or private matters.

• Common in crowded or public settings where complete awareness of everyone’s actions is impossible or inappropriate.

Examples:

• Not staring at someone who trips in public.

Socialization

Socialization is the process through which individuals learn the norms, values, behaviors, and roles of their society.

Key Ideas:

• It helps people become functioning members of society.

• Occurs through family, school, peers, media, and other institutions.

Group Conformity

is the tendency of individuals to adopt the behaviors, attitudes, or values of a group to fit in or be accepted.

Conforming to Authority 

is the tendency of individuals to follow the orders or directions of someone in a position of power, even if they might personally disagree.

Primary vs. Secondary Groups

• Primary groups are important for emotional support, socialization, and identity formation.

• Secondary groups are important for achieving specific objectives or tasks.

In-Group vs. Out-group

In-Group

A group to which a person feels they belong; often has loyalty and favoritism toward members.

Family, close friends, sports team you support

Out-Group

A group to which a person does not belong; may be viewed with competition, suspicion, or hostility.

Rival sports teams, different social cliques, political opponents

Social Deviance

refers to behavior that violates the norms, rules, or expectations of a society or group.

Key Ideas:

• Deviance is relative — what’s deviant in one society may be acceptable in another.

• Not all deviance is negative; it can challenge norms and bring social change.

• Sociologists study deviance to understand social control, norms, and order.

Statistical Deviance

Statistical Deviance refers to behaviors or traits that are uncommon or rare in a population, based purely on numbers or frequency, rather than morality.

Key Ideas:

• Focuses on how unusual a behavior or characteristic is compared to the majority.

• Does not automatically mean the behavior is bad or wrong.

• Useful for identifying outliers in a social or health context.

Examples:

• Having an extremely high IQ or being a prodigy.

Social Control

Social Control is the ways society regulates behavior to ensure conformity to norms and maintain order.

Key Ideas:

• Helps prevent deviance and keep society functioning smoothly.

• Can be formal (laws, police, courts) or informal (peer pressure, family expectations, social disapproval).

• Works through rewards for conformity and punishments for deviance.

Sanctions

are rewards or punishments used to encourage conformity to norms and discourage deviance.

Key Ideas:

• They are tools of social control.

• Can be positive (rewards) or negative (punishments).

• Can be formal (official/legal) or informal (social reactions).

Rewards

Rewards are a type of positive sanction used to encourage or reinforce behavior that conforms to social norms.

Key Ideas:

• Rewards promote desirable behavior in society.

• Can be formal (official recognition) or informal (praise from peers).

Criminal Deviance

Criminal Deviance refers to behavior that violates formal laws established by a society and is punishable by legal authorities.

Labeling Theory (Changes to Self)

Labeling Theory is a sociological theory that explains how being labeled as “deviant” can affect a person’s self-identity and behavior.

Key Ideas:

• Developed by Howard Becker and others.

• Society’s labels (e.g., “criminal,” “troublemaker”) can influence how people see themselves.

• Being labeled can lead to self-fulfilling prophecies, where the person accepts the label and continues deviant behavior.

How It Changes the Self:

1. Primary deviance: Initial act of rule-breaking, often unnoticed or excused.

2. Labeling: Society labels the person as deviant.

3. Secondary deviance: The person internalizes the label and continues deviant behavior.

4. Identity change: The label becomes part of the person’s self-concept.

Labeling Theory (Social Exclusion)

focuses on how being labeled as deviant can lead to a person being marginalized or excluded from society.

Key Ideas:

• Society’s labels (e.g., “criminal,” “addict,” “troublemaker”) can push people to the margins.

• Labeled individuals may face stigma, discrimination, or reduced opportunities.

• This exclusion can reinforce deviant behavior, as the person may have fewer options for conforming.

Labeling Theory (Deviant Group Entry)

Labeling Theory (Deviant Group Entry) explains how being labeled as deviant can push a person to join groups that support or reinforce deviant behavior.

Key Ideas:

• Once someone is labeled, they may feel rejected by conventional society.

• They may seek acceptance and support from others who share similar labels or behaviors.

• This can strengthen deviant identity and increase participation in deviant activities.

General Strain Theory (Coping Mechanisms)

• Strain occurs when individuals cannot achieve socially approved goals or experience negative events.

• People respond to strain using different coping mechanisms, which may be conforming or deviant.

• Coping mechanisms can be:

  1. Legitimate (conforming): Working harder, seeking support, problem-solving.

  2. Illegitimate (deviant): Theft, aggression, substance abuse, or rule-breaking.

Examples:

• A student stressed by failing grades may study harder (legitimate) or cheat on exams (deviant).

General Strain Theory (Strain-Circomstantial Factors)

General Strain Theory (Strain–Circumstantial Factors) refers to the specific circumstances or situations that create strain, which may push individuals toward deviance

General Strain Theory (Personal/Social Factors)

General Strain Theory (Personal/Social Factors) focuses on individual traits and social influences that affect how a person responds to strain.

Network Theory

is a sociological perspective that examines how social relationships and connections influence behavior, opportunities, and social outcomes.

Key Ideas:

• People are embedded in networks of relationships (friends, family, colleagues, organizations).

• The structure and quality of these networks affect access to resources, information, and support.

• Can help explain social influence, diffusion of ideas, and patterns of deviance or conformity.

Examples:

• A person with a strong professional network may find jobs more easily.

• Peer networks can influence teens to conform, rebel, or engage in deviant behavior

Network Formation (Homophily)

Network Formation (Homophily) is a principle in network theory that people tend to form connections with others who are similar to themselves in some way.

Network Formation (Transivity)

is a principle in network theory that describes how connections tend to form between people who share a common friend.

Key Ideas:

• If Person A is connected to Person B, and Person B is connected to Person C, there is a higher likelihood that Person A will connect to Person C.

Network Formation (Joint-Task Effect)

Network Formation (Joint-Task Effect) is a principle in network theory that describes how people are more likely to form connections when they work together on shared tasks or goals.

Network Effects (Induction)

Network Effects (Induction) is a concept in network theory that describes how behaviors, attitudes, or information spread from one person to another through social connections.

Key Ideas:

• People influence others in their network, leading to the spread of behaviors or ideas.

Network Effects (Network-Structural Effects)

Network Effects (Network-Structural Effects) refer to how the overall structure of a social network influences individual behavior and the spread of information or behaviors.

Key Ideas:

• The pattern of connections (who is connected to whom, and how densely) affects influence, opportunities, and information flow

Network Centrality

Network Centrality is a concept in network theory that measures how important or influential a person is within a social network based on their connections.

Key Ideas:

• People with high centrality have more influence, visibility, or access to information.

• Centrality can be measured in different ways:

Human Capital - Compared to other OECD countries

OECD countries demonstrate a wide range of human capital development, influenced by factors such as investment levels, policy decisions, and societal priorities. While some nations excel due to comprehensive policies and investments, others face challenges that hinder their human capital potential. Understanding these dynamics is crucial for formulating strategies to enhance human capital across the OECD.

Hidden Curriculum

refers to the unspoken or implicit lessons, values, and norms that students learn in school, beyond the formal curriculum.

School Funding (Proverty Taxes vs. State Aid)

• Definition: Schools are funded primarily through local property taxes in a community.

• Key Features:

  • Wealthier areas generate more revenue, leading to better-funded schools.

  • Poorer areas generate less revenue, resulting in underfunded schools.

  • Can create inequality in educational quality.

• Example: A school in a wealthy suburb has new technology and smaller class sizes, while a school in a low-income neighborhood struggles with outdated textbooks and overcrowded classrooms.

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• Definition: Funds provided by the state government to supplement local school budgets.

• Key Features:

  • Designed to equalize funding across wealthy and poor districts.

Cultural Capital

Includes skills, knowledge, education, tastes, and manners that give individuals advantages.

• Passed down through family, social class, and education.

• Influences academic success, social mobility, and access to opportunities.

Examples:

• Knowing how to speak formally in professional settings.

• Being familiar with art, literature, or classical music in elite social circles.

• Understanding unwritten rules of schools or workplaces, like how to network effectively.

• Parents helping children with homework or cultural enrichment activities.

Class Reproduction

• Families pass down economic, cultural, and social capital, which helps children maintain or reproduce their social class.

• Schools and institutions often reinforce existing inequalities, favoring children from higher-class backgrounds.

• This leads to limited social mobility, as opportunities are shaped by inherited advantages.

Examples:

• Children of wealthy parents attend better schools and have access to tutors, cultural experiences, and networks, keeping them in upper-class positions.

Concerted Cultivation

• Enrolling children in piano lessons, sports, or summer camps.

• Parents scheduling playdates and extracurricular activities to develop social networks.

• Frequent parent-child discussions about school, current events, and reasoning skills.

In short:

Concerted cultivation is a parenting approach that actively fosters children’s skills and abilities through structured activities and guidance.

Accomplishment of Natural Growth

• Common among working-class and lower-class families.

• Children have more free time and unstructured play rather than organized activities.

• Parents provide basic care, love, and safety, but less direct involvement in skill development.

• Children develop independence, creativity, and practical problem-solving, but may feel less comfortable interacting with institutions or authority.

Six Features of Functional Health Systems

Service Delivery

• Provides safe, effective, and accessible health services to the population.

• Focuses on prevention, treatment, rehabilitation, and palliative care.

2. Health Workforce

• A well-trained, motivated, and sufficient workforce is essential.

• Includes doctors, nurses, allied health professionals, and community health workers.

3. Health Information Systems

• Collects, analyzes, and uses data on health status, service delivery, and outcomes.

• Helps with decision-making, planning, and monitoring performance.

4. Medical Products, Vaccines, and Technologies

• Ensures access to essential medicines, vaccines, diagnostics, and medical devices.

• Supports quality care and effective treatment.

5. Financing

• Adequate funding for health services, protecting people from financial hardship.

• Includes government budgets, insurance schemes, and donor contributions.

6. Leadership and Governance

• Strong policies, regulations, and accountability mechanisms.

• Guides the coordination, planning, and evaluation of the health system.

Global Healthcare Models (Beveridge)

is a tax-funded, government-run healthcare system that provides universal coverage and free care at the point of service.

Global Healthcare Models (Bismarck-Germany)

The Bismarck Model is an insurance-based system funded by employers and employees, providing universal coverage with mostly private providers under government regulation.

Global Healthcare Models (Single-Player(Canada))

The Single-Payer Model is a government-financed healthcare system with mostly private providers, offering universal coverage at low out-of-pocket cost to patients.

Global Healthcare Models (Out of Pocket)

The Out-of-Pocket Model is where individuals pay directly for healthcare, making access dependent on wealth and often leaving the poor without adequate care.

Commercialization of Health (Privatization)

• Privatization means shifting healthcare services from public (government-run) to private (for-profit or non-profit) sectors.

• The focus moves from health as a public good to health as a market commodity — something you buy and sell.

• Can include private hospitals, insurance companies, pharmaceutical corporations, and medical technology firms.

Commercialization of Health (Unbundling & Coding)

1. Unbundling

Definition:
Unbundling is the practice of separating medical services or procedures that could be billed together, in order to charge more money.2. Coding

Definition:
Coding is the process of assigning numerical or alphanumeric codes to medical procedures, diagnoses, and services for billing and data tracking.

Both unbundling and coding manipulation show how healthcare becomes financialized — driven by billing optimization instead of patient well-being.

They reflect the shift from care-based medicine to profit-based healthcare management, a hallmark of commercialization.

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In short:

Unbundling and coding are billing strategies that emerged from the commercialization of healthcare — often increasing costs and prioritizing profits over patients.

Commercialization of Health (Price Negotiation)

How It Works:

1. Providers (hospitals, doctors) propose high “list prices” (called chargemasters).

2. Insurance companies negotiate lower rates — each insurer gets a different deal.

3. Patients pay a copay, deductible, or the full amount if uninsured.

Social Determinant of Health

Social Determinants of Health are the conditions in the environment that affect a wide range of health, functioning, and quality-of-life outcomes.

Allostaic Load

refers to the wear and tear on the body that builds up when a person is repeatedly exposed to stress or is unable to effectively cope with it over time.

Knowledge Gap

The Knowledge Gap refers to the idea that as information in society increases, people with more education and resources tend to acquire that information faster than those with fewer resources — causing the gap in knowledge between groups to widen instead of shrink.

Trust Gap

The Trust Gap refers to the difference in how much people trust institutions, systems, or information sources — such as the government, media, healthcare, or education — based on their social background or past experiences.

Implicit Bias

Implicit bias refers to the unconscious attitudes or stereotypes that affect how we think, feel, and act toward others — without us even realizing it.

Systematic Observations

Systematic observation is a research method in sociology (and other social sciences) where researchers carefully watch, record, and analyze people’s behavior in a structured and consistent way to identify patterns.

Empirical Evidence

refers to information acquired through observation, experience, or experiments — essentially, knowledge that is based on actual data, facts, or measurable phenomena, rather than theory or opinion.

Exploratory vs. Descriptive vs. Explanatory Research

• Exploratory: Opens the door, finds patterns.

• Descriptive: Paints the picture.

• Explanatory: Explains the picture.

Hypothesis

A hypothesis is a testable statement or prediction about the relationship between two or more variables. It is used in research to guide investigation and analysis.

Variables (Independent vs. dependent)

Independent = “I change it” (cause)
Dependent = “Depends on it” (effect)

Operational Definition

An operational definition specifies exactly how a concept or variable will be measured or observed in a study. It turns an abstract idea into something concrete and measurable.

Population vs. Sample

1. Population

• Definition: The entire group of individuals or cases that a researcher is interested in studying.

• Key Idea: It’s the complete set from which data could theoretically be collected.

• Example:

  • All high school students in the U.S.

  • Every hospital in a country

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2. Sample

• Definition: A subset of the population that is actually observed or surveyed.

Generalizability

eneralizability refers to the extent to which the findings from a study can be applied to the larger population or to other settings, people, or times beyond the sample studied.

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💬 Key Idea:

If a study is highly generalizable, its results reflect broader trends and are not limited to just the specific participants or conditions.

Validity

Validity refers to the accuracy or truthfulness of a study or measurement — whether a research method or instrument actually measures what it is intended to measure.

Reliability

refers to the consistency or repeatability of a measurement or research study. A study or instrument is reliable if it produces the same results under consistent conditions.

Deductive vs. Inductive Research

• Deductive: Test what you already think is true.

• Inductive: Look at the data first, then figure out the theory.

Three Dimensions of Power (Coercive Power)

Coercive power is the first dimension of power, where power is exercised through force, threats, or punishment to influence behavior. It is the most visible and direct form of power.

Three Dimensions of Power (Agenda-Setting)

Agenda-setting power is the second dimension of power, where power is exercised by controlling what gets discussed, debated, or considered in decision-making processes. It’s about shaping the agenda rather than directly forcing action.

Examples:

• Media outlets deciding which news stories are covered, shaping public attention.

• Governments setting which policies are discussed in parliament.

• Workplace managers choosing which projects or ideas get considered in meetings.

Three Dimensions of Power (Ideology)

works by influencing how people think, making them comply voluntarily because they believe it is in their own interest or natural.

Three Dimensions of Power (Discourse)

refers to the way power is exercised through language, communication, and shared knowledge, shaping how people think, talk, and act in society. It overlaps with ideological power but emphasizes the role of conversation, norms, and knowledge systems in maintaining control.

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