unit 2 (cognition)

perception

the process of interpreting sensory information obtained via touch, taste, smell, hearing, or sight

top-down processing

the interpretation of sensory stimuli by utilizing prior knowledge and experiences, contributing to an efficient processing of information

proofreader’s illusion

the overlooking of spelling or grammar mistakes a person makes as a result of top-down processing, and viewing the information as what was intended to be written

bottom-up processing

utilizing information transmitted via sensory stimuli to interpret information in the brain, resulting in a longer process

schemas

mental frameworks that are built from past experiences and guide perceptions

assimilation

the fitting of new information into existing schemas

accomodation

the changing of schemas to fit new information

perceptual sets

sets of mental tendencies and assumptions that affect the interpretation of certain stimuli in a given moment

selective attention

the focus of the conscious brain on one stimuli at a given moment, resulting in the “tuning out” of the other stimuli

cocktail party effect

the ability to recognize personal stimuli, such as names, in settings where many stimuli are being unconsciously processed by the brain

inattentional blindness

the failure to notice stimuli in a person’s visual field as a result of divided attention, or attention focused elsewhere

change blindess

a form of inattentional blindness, in which changes in a person’s visual field go unrecognized as a result of divided attention, or attention focused elsewhere

apparent movement

the visualization of motion even if an object isn’t moving

stroboscopic motion

utilizing apparent motion by showing a series of images in rapid succession, resulting in the brain perceiving motion

phi phenomenon

an instance of objects being perceived as moving, despite remaining stationary, as a result of lights blinking on and off

induced movement

a phenomenon where a stationary object appears to move as a result of the movement of objects around it

autokinetic effect

the perceived movement of a stationary point of light in a dark environment

gestalt psychology

explains the perceptual world by focusing on the human tendency to group elements together to form meaningful patterns

figure and ground

the tendency for the human visual system to separate images into the subject and its background

continuation

the tendency to naturally follow continuous lines and paths

closure

the brain’s tendency to subconsciously fill in missing information when viewing a familiar, but incomplete, object

similarity

the tendency to perceive a group of similar objects or patterns as one cohesive unit

anomoly

the tendency to notice an object that is different from others, as it becomes the focal point

proximity

the tendency to perceive objects that are placed closer together as one singular group

symmetry

viewing objects that are symmetrical as one object, rather than individual elements

depth perception

the ability to perceive relative distance of an object in a person’s visual field

retinal disparity

the difference between the images seen in the left eye and right eye

monocular cues

depth cues that require a singular eye and help perceive depth on two-dimensional surfaces

relative size

objects closer to us will appear larger, while objects further away appear smaller

interposition

when an object blocks another, the object blocked is perceived as being farther away while the other object is seen as closer

relative height

objects that are higher in the visual field are farther away than those lower in the visual field

shading and contour

parts of an image that are hazy and have less detail appear to be farther away, while closer objects have more detail and are in focus

linear perspective

when parallel lines appear to converge at a point in the distance, it gives a sense of depth

motion parallax

objects closer to a person appear to move quickly, while farther objects appear to move much slower

perceptual constancy

the ability to perceive objects as having consistent shape, size, color, and lightness, even when their appearance changes due to varying conditions

size constancy

the brain’s tendency to perceive objects as a the same size

color constancy

the ability to perceive the color of an object as consistent, despite changes in lighting

shape constancy

the tendency of the brain to perceive an object’s shape as the same, despite movement

lightness constancy

the ability to perceive blackness, whiteness, and grayness of an object as constant, even under different lighting conditions

concepts

mental categories of similar objects, events, ideas, or people that assist humans in organizing and understanding the world

prototypes

mental images and the best examples of each concept

executive functions

cognitive processes that assist individuals in carrying out and planning goal-oriented behaviors, as well as engage in critical thinking

algorithms

the step-by-step approaches to solving a problem, which guarantees a solution but is a lengthy process

heuristics

mental shortcuts based on passed experiences used to solve problems, but can lead to errors

representative heuristics

making judgements based on how much something resembles or represents a typical case or stereotype

availability heuristics

making judgements based on how easily examples come to mind

mental sets

cognitive frameworks that rely on past experiences and successful strategies to solve new problems

priming

the phenomenon where exposure to one stimulus influences how a person responds to a later stimulus

repetition priming

repeated exposure to a stimulus making it easier to recognize the same or similar stimulus later

semantic priming

the influence of one word on the interpretation of another, related word

framing

the way in which information is presented, shaping interpretations and reactions, and thus influencing decisions and judgements

creativity

the ability for individuals to create new original ideas and solutions

divergent thinking

the ability to consider many different options and to think in novel ways

convergent thinking

the ability to provide a single correct answer

functional fixedness

the limitation of a person to use an object only in a certain way, typically the traditional way

gambler’s fallacy

the belief that if an event occurs more frequently than normal during a given period, it will have less frequently in the future, and vice versa

sunk-cost fallacy

the tendency to pursue an action in which you’ve already invested money, time, or resources into, regardless of its future value

metacognition

a person’s awareness of their cognitive processes

memory

information that persists over time, gained through various experiences, and can be stored and retrieved later

explicit memory

memories that can be consciously recalled and “declared,” although they require much effort and thought

episodic memory

memories of personally experienced events

semantic memory

memories of facts and general knowledge

implicit memory

memories that consist of information that have been learned subconsciously, and cannot be “declared”

procedural memory

assists in recalling how to perform tasks such as motor skills and routines

prospective memory

the ability to remember future actions, such as schedule events

parallel processing

the ability for the brain to handle multiple streams of information simultaneously

long-term potentiation (LTP)

the strengthening of synaptic connections between neurons as a result of repeated activation, and is the biological basis for memory

working-memory model

explains how the primary memory system process information into long-term memory through interactions with the central executive, phonological loop, and visuospatial sketchpad`

visuospatial sketchpad

holds information about objects’ appearance and location relative to space, allowing humans to visualize objects and their location

phonological loop

hold verbal and auditory information

central executive

coordinates the activities of working memory, specifically the phonological loop and visuospatial sketpad

multi-store model

a proposed model that focuses on 3 systems that interact in order to process, store, and retrieve information

sensory memory

the immediate, but brief, recollection of sensory information in the memory system

iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli, lasting for a fraction of a second

echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli, lasting about 1-4 seconds

automatic processing

the processing of sensory stimuli unconsciously, often without realizing that it’s being processes

short-term memory

a briefly activated memory that can only contain a few items, and is later forgotten or stored, depending on whether it is rehersed

maintenance rehearsal

the process of repeatedly going over information to prevent the information from being forgotten

elaborative rehearsal

the process of connecting new information to already known information, making it easier to remember in the future

long-term memory

a relatively permanent, limitless achieve of the memory system, including aspects like knowledge and skills

levels of processing model

a proposed model that explains that the brain processes information at different levels, allowing for easier remembrance at deeper levels of processing

shallow processing

encoding information based on the structure or appearance of words

phonemic processing

encoding information based on the sound of information

semantic processing

encoding information based on its meaning and conceptual understanding

encoding

the processes and strategies used to take in information and store it in long-term memory

mnemonic devices

memory aids that utilize techniques, like vivid imagery and organizational devices, to effectively encoding information

method of loci

associating certain information with a specific location in a familiar setting

chunking

the process of grouping individual pieces of information into larger, more manageable, units

categories

the process of relating concepts to each other by grouping them into broad topics

hierarchies

the process of relating concepts, that are within broad categories, to each other by branching each category and concept off of each other

the spacing effect

the tendency for distributed practice to yield better long-term retention

massed practice

the act of studying or practicing a topic all at once, or cramming the work

distributed practice

the act of studying or practice a topic over periods of time

testing effect

the enhancement of memory after practicing retrieving information

serial position effect

the ability for the order in which information is presented to impact the recollection and encoding processes of memory

primacy effect

the higher likelihood for information at the beginning of a list to be remembered easier

recency effect

the higher likelihood for information at the end of a list to be remember easier

memory consolidation

the process by which short-term memories are transformed into long-term memories

flashbulb memories

memories formed around events that are extremely stressful, traumatic, or emotional, and result in vivid memory of the event

autobiographical memories

explicit memories that are personally relevant, or are recollections of a person’s own life