Abnormal Psychology 441 Jane Fisher - Exam 1

repression

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

Describe how psychosocial factors (e.g., stress, control over environmental events) affect neurodevelopment.

Yes, the structure of neurons themselves, including the number of receptors on a cell, can be changed by learning and experience during development

-Affectionate caregiving

-Sensory stimulation

-Physical activity

-Cognitive stimulation

-Stress

affect

Appearance of observable emotions

Describe the logic and purpose of behavioral assessment. Why do you think naturalistic observations are more likely to be pursued within behavioral assessment as opposed to other models of assessment?

Behavioral assessment is a method used in the field of psychology to observe, describe, explain, predict and sometimes correct behavior. Behavioral assessment can be useful in clinical, educational and corporate settings.

It is more likely pursued naturalistically because behavior could change if the test subject knows that they are being monitored.

Describe the major techniques of psychoanalysis.

*The goal of psychoanalysis is insight

(understanding) of the basis for anxiety

Techniques:

*Free association: person says whatever comes to

mind: the content is examined by the therapist for resistances (areas the person does not wish to talk

about)

*Dream analysis: Unconscious impulses are

expressed during dreams

Evaluate the contributions and limitations of Roger's humanistic theory of human behavior.

*Humanistic theories or paradigms focus on

insight into the motivations/needs of the

person

-These paradigms place greater emphasis on

the persons freedom of choice (free will)

-The humanistic paradigm does not focus on

how problems develop in a person

*Rogers is considered founder of psychotherapy

outcome research

*Role of empathy in psychotherapy continues to

be considered important

*"Unconditional positive regard" and emphasis on

client's phenomenology not effective for all

problems

-antisocial behavior

trephination

An ancient operation in which a stone instrument was used to cut away a circular section of the skull, perhaps to treat abnormal behavior.

denial

psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which people refuse to believe or even to perceive painful realities.

displacement

psychoanalytic defense mechanism that shifts sexual or aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person, as when redirecting anger toward a safer outlet

What is meant by the statement "Development and behavior are almost always polygenic"?

development and behavior are almost always affected by more than one gene

What is emotion dysregulation? How has this concept been applied in describing the symptoms of various psychological disorders?

Emotional dysregulation (ED) is a term used in the mental health community to refer to an emotional response that is poorly modulated, and does not fall within the conventionally accepted range of emotive response.

-Example: Panic attack = fear occurring at the wrong time

synapse

A junction where information is transmitted from one neuron to the next.

prepared learning

learning that occurs without extensive training because of an evolved predisposition to the behavior

Describe the concepts of reliability and validity as they apply to clinical assessment. What is the relationship between reliability and validity? Describe the different types of reliability and validity as they apply to clinical assessment.

-Reliability refers to the consistently of measurement to see if the results seen are consistent over a course of time

-Validity asses the extent to which a test or instrument fulfills its intended purpose

*The validity of an instrument is constrained by the reliability of the instruction

-unreliable measures will not have good validity

What is a structured interview? What are the advantages and disadvantages of a structured interview as compared with an unstructured interview?

A structured interview is a quantitative research method commonly employed in survey research. The aim of this approach is to ensure that each interview is presented with exactly the same questions in the same order.

Describe the assumptions underlying projective tests. Describe the purpose, structure, and administration procedures of the Rorschach inkblot test and the Thematic Apperception Test.Evaluate the strengths and limitations of projective tests.

-Projective tests provide ambiguous stimuli that are interpreted by the test subject according to "unconscious needs/impulses"

*Rorschach inkblot test: person is asked to describe each of 10 ink blots (half of the blots are in color while half are black and white)

*Thematic apperception test: person is shown a series of pictures and asked to explain the story behind each

*require high degree of inference in scoring and interpretation

*Poor reliability and validity

What is the difference between a dimensional and a categorical system for classifying human behavior? What is a prototypical approach to classification?

Categorical classification is when a system makes a yes/no decision as to the presence/absence of a disorder

Dimensional classification involves a particular characteristic among a quantitative dimension. This can include a cutoff point that will yield a categorical classification.

reliability

consistency of measurement

criterion validity

A property exhibited by a test that accurately measures performance of the test taker against a specific learning goal.

Describe different approaches to the definition of "abnormal behavior" and the limitations of each definition. Be prepared to provide an example of a behavior that is considered "abnormal" based on each definition.

*Behavior

*thoughts

*feelings

--------------------------------

-Personal distress

*distress definition suggests that behaviors that are accompanied by distress are abnormal

Examples: Depression, Panic Disorder, Social anxiety

Limitations of distress as a criterion:

*Distress is often a "normal", healthy response

-Bereavement- intense sadness due to a loss of a loved one is a healthy response

-Intense fear in a physically dangerous situation

*Context of the behavior matters:

-Intense fear when there is no objective danger. Controversy: Post-traumatic stress disorder

-Intense fear of public speaking the first time vs.

the 1000th time

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* Dysfunction or impairment in an important area of life

can be used to characterize "abnormal" behavior

*Disconnect between how person behaves vs. their

values & desired outcomes

*Many disorders are defined, in part, by impairment in social or occupational functioning

*Impairment can occur in one or more areas of

functioning

-cognitive

-behavioral

-emotional

Limitations of "dysfunction" definition

*Disability alone can't be used to define abnormal

behavior

ex:Being a slow runner when you want to compete in

the Olympics marathon event

*Some, but not all, disorders involve disability

ex:Most individuals who meet criteria for bulimia lead

lives without impairment

*"Harmful" dysfunction

Deviance: Atypical or not culturally expected

*Deviance suggests that abnormality is relative to a

cultural or societal norm

Examples: Pedophilia, exhibitionism, cross dressing by men vs. women, antisocial behavior, sleepovers among boys vs. sleepovers among men and boys.

Limitations of deviance:

*Inconsistent application:

-What about superior intelligence?

-Superior athletic ability?

-Are we inconsistently and too focused on ability in some cases?

*Rarity of behavior is not sufficient as a criterion

Describe the educational requirements and differences in foci for the following professions: clinical and counseling psychology (including both Ph.D. and Psy.D,), psychiatry, psychiatric nursing, clinical social work.

-The Ph.D.: Clinical and counseling psychologist

(trained in research and delivering treatment)

-The Psy.D.: Clinical and counseling "Doctor of

Psychology" (trained in delivering treatment)

-M.D.: Psychiatrist

- Psychiatric nurses

-LCSW: Licensed clinical social worker (trained in

delivering treatment)

Be prepared to define the following term as applied in describing psychological disorders: a) chronic course; b) episodic course; c) time-limited course; d) acute onset; e) insidious onset; f) prognosis; g) guarded prognosis.

Chronic Course:Tend to last a long time.

Episodic course:Is when an individual happens to recover for a short period of time.( weeks) only to suffer a recurrence at a later time.

time-limited course: When an individual will improve without treatment In a relatively short period of time.

Acute onset:When the disorder began suddenly.

insidious onset:

When the disorder develops gradually over an extended period of time.

prognosis:the likely course of a disease or ailment

guarded prognosis: Guarded prognosis refers to a prognosis given by a physician when the outcome of a patient's illness is in doubt.

What is epidemiology? Define the following terms: a) incidence rate; b) prevalence rate.

Epidemiology: the branch of medicine which deals with the incidence, distribution, and possible control of diseases and other factors relating to health.

Incidence rate:The number of new cases over a period of time

prevalence rate:How many people have the disorder

Describe the doctrine of demonology and how it affected the treatment of persons whose behavior was considered abnormal.

*Demonology is the view that abnormal

behavior is due the occupation by an evil being

-Torture was required to elicit "confessions" of

witchcraft; death by fire was required to drive out

supposed demons

-Exorcism

-Trephination; drilling holes into the skull

Describe Hippocrates' views about the causes of abnormal behavior. How did his humoral theory of abnormal behavior influence the treatment of abnormal behavior in ancient Greece?

Hippocrates:Abnormal behavior is the result

of internal physical problems

*Abnormal behavior is due to brain pathology caused by imbalance of bodily humors:

-Yellow bile - Excess causes mania

-Black bile - Excess causes

melancholia

-Blood - Excess causes delirium

-Phlegm - Excess causes lethargy

-His suggested treatment that attempted to "rebalance"

Describe how the condition known as general paresis influenced ideas about the causes of abnormal behavior.

Link between untreated syphilis and general paresis was made that influenced that mental illnesses had a biological cause and could be treated with effective medications.

Describe the contributions of the following individuals: Phillipe Pinel, Emil Kraepelin, John P. Grey, Benjamin Rush, Dorthea Dix.

Phillipe Pinel (France)- advocated "moral treatment" - care that emphasized humane and respectful treatment

Emil Kraepelin- argued that physical factors like fatigue are responsible for mental dysfunction; suggested that clusters of symptoms form a syndrome

John P. Grey- stated that insanity is always physical

Benjamin Rush (Father of american psychiatry) and Dorthea Dix (boston schoolteacher) were the primary proponents of moral treatment.

What is a syndrome? What characteristics are considered in distinguishing between syndromes?

Syndrome: clusters of symptoms

Each syndrome has its own unique:

-cause

-course

-symptoms

-treatment

-outcome

What is a paradigm? What are the implications associated with adopting a particular scientific paradigm

paradigm: are conceptual frameworks that

scientists use to study the world

-Paradigms include assumptions about science

and methods

-Paradigms dictate what will and will not be studied

Paradigms can dictate the methods used by a

scientists: dream analysis and experimentation

What potential etiological factors are considered within a biological paradigm of psychopathology?

-Heredity

-imbalances of brain chemistry

-disordered development of brain structures

Describe Freud's structural theory of the mind

Freud suggested that the "mind" is composed of three parts:

*Id is the raw energy that powers the mind

-Id seeks gratification of basic urges for food, water,

warmth, affection, and sex

-Id processes are unconscious

*Ego is a conscious part of the mind that deals

with reality

*Superego is the final part of the mind to emerge

and is similar to the conscience

Describe Freud's conceptualization of the development of the personality. According to Freud what are the stages of psychosexual development? What occurs during each stage? How has this model been applied to explain the development of abnormal behavior?

-Freud argued that personality develops in

stages: in each stage the id derives pleasure

from a distinct part of the body

*Oral (Birth to 18 months): infant derives pleasure from

eating and biting

*Anal (18 months to 3 years): the focus of pleasure is

the anus

*Phallic (3 to 6 years): the genitals are the focus of

pleasure

*Latent (6 to 12 years): id impulses are dormant

*Genital: heterosexual interests are dominant

model applied that over stimulation of any stage could lead to abnormal behavior growing up

What are the strengths and limitations of the psychoanalytic paradigm?

*Core assumption of the psychoanalytic

paradigm is that abnormal behavior reflects

unconscious conflicts within the person

*The psychoanalytic paradigm is derived from

the theories of personality developed by

Sigmund Freud

How did the development of psychotropic medication influence the care of persons with psychological disorders?

The discoveries of these medications led to deinstitutionalization and a rise in outpatient care

Describe Carl Rogers' assumptions about human behavior. What are the basic assumptions of client centered therapy?

assumptions about human behavior:

*People can only be understood from the vantage

point of their own feelings

*Healthy people are:

-aware of their own behavior

-innately good and effective

-purposive and directive

*Therapy creates conditions under which person

makes independent decisions

Client-centered therapy assumes that

-The client takes the lead during therapy

-The client takes responsibility for their own actions

-The therapist is warm, attentive and receptive

(unconditional positive regard)

-The therapist fosters growth on the part of the

client

-Empathy is crucial to therapy

Be prepared to describe the classical conditioning paradigm and how classical conditioning has been applied to explain the development of abnormal behavior.

The classical conditioning paradigm allows behavior to be observed

behavior can be conditioned

What is the law of effect? Describe B.F. Skinner's reformulation of the law of effect. How has operant conditioning been applied to explain the development and maintenance of abnormal behavior?

Law of Effect - Behavior followed by consequences satisfying to the organism will be repeated

-l B. F. Skinner (1904 - 1990) Reformulated the law of

effect by shifting focus from linking of stimuli and

responses (S - R connections) to the relationship

between responses and their consequences

operant conditioning explains the behaviors that follow about positive/negative reinforcement or punishment has been applied

What is counterconditioning? Describe the logic of interventions that are based on the principle of counterconditioning.

Counter conditioning: learning a new response

-Systematic desensitization: relaxation is paired with a

stimulus that formerly induced anxiety

-Aversive conditioning: an unpleasant event is paired

with a stimulus to reduce its attractiveness

Evaluate the contributions and limitations of the operant model as applied to abnormal behavior.

operant conditioning explains the behaviors that follow about positive/negative reinforcement or punishment has been applied

Describe the contributions of Edward Thorndike and John B. Watson.

l Edward Thorndike (1947 - 1949)

Studied the effect of consequences on

behavior

John B Watson- little albert- conditioning of a fear response

Describe the cognitive model of psychopathology. What etiological factors are considered within this model?

*The cognitive paradigm focuses on how

people verbally structure and understand

their experiences and how verbal labeling

and interpretation are related to past

experiences stored in memory

etiological factors- thoughts

Psychopathology

the study of abnormal behavior

presenting problem

Original complaint reported by the client to the therapist. The actual treated problem may be a modification derived from the presenting problem.

prevalence

percentage of people within a population who have a specific mental disorder

incidence

The number or rate of new cases of a particular condition during a specific time.

course

pattern of development and change of a disorder over time

prognosis

a prediction of the course of a disease

moral therapy

19th-century psychosocial approach to treatment that involved treating patients with moral guidance and humane respect in normal environments.

scientist-practitioner model

A model of training of professional psychologists that emphasizes the development of both research and clinical skills.

classical conditioning

a learning process that occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired; a response that is at first elicited by the second stimulus is eventually elicited by the first stimulus alone.

unconditioned stimulus

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response.

conditioned stimulus

in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response

shaping

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

counterconditioning

A behavior therapy procedure that conditions new responses to stimuli that trigger unwanted behaviors; based on classical conditioning. Includes exposure therapies and aversive conditioning.

deinstitutionalization

1960s and 1970s governmental policy that focused on releasing hospitalized psychiatric patients into the community and closing mental hospitals

symptom

subjective evidence of a disease, such as pain or a headache

syndrome

A group of symptoms typical of a particular disease or condition

etiology

cause of disease

ego

the largely conscious, "executive" part of personality that, according to Freud, mediates among the demands of the id, superego, and reality. The ego operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id's desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain.

superego

the part of personality that, according to Freud, represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations

id

a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives. The id operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification.

defense mechanisms

in psychoanalytic theory, the ego's protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality

free association

in psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing

demonology

in medieval Europe, the study of demons and the treatment of persons "possessed" by demons

asylums

institutions to house and care for people who are afflicted with mental illness

unconditioned response

In classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth.

conditioned response

in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS)

extinction

the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.

systematic desensitization

A type of counterconditioning that associates a pleasant relaxed state with gradually increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli

behavior therapy

a treatment process that focuses on changing unwanted behaviors through rewards and reinforcements

projection

psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which people disguise their own threatening impulses by attributing them to others

rationalization

defense mechanism that offers self-justifying explanations in place of the real, more threatening, unconscious reasons for one's actions

reaction formation

psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which the ego unconsciously switches unacceptable impulses into their opposites. Thus, people may express feelings that are the opposite of their anxiety-arousing unconscious feelings.

dream analysis

A psychoanalytic technique in which the therapist interprets the symbolic meaning of the client's dreams.

transference

in psychoanalysis, the patient's transfer to the analyst of emotions linked with other relationships (such as love or hatred for a parent)

positive reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

negative reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: negative reinforcement is not punishment.)

negative punishment

the removal of a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior's recurring

positive punishment

the administration of a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior's recurring

law of effect

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

Describe the diathesis-stress model.

Disorders are the result of underlying risk factors with life stressors that cause a disorder to emerge

Describe the gene-environment correlation model. Describe how this model has been applied to explain complex human behavior such as social relationships.

Outcomes are a result of interactions between genetic vulnerabilities and experience

genetics may make people more likely to seek out certain environments, thus affecting their experiences

Can the genetic structure of cells change as a result of learning experiences?

Yes, the structure of neurons themselves, including the number of receptors on a cell, can be changed by learning and experience during development

-Affectionate caregiving

-Sensory stimulation

-Physical activity

-Cognitive stimulation

-Stress

It has been argued that genetic contributions to behavior not be considered without also considering environmental influences. What is the evidence for this assertion?

-Cross fostering studies of development

*rats who were born to anxious moms (i.e. genetic influence = anxiety) but raised by calm moms (i,e, environmental influence =calm) grew up calm so that means environmental influences overrides genetic influences

Describe the reciprocal gene-environment model. How has this model been applied to explain the development of abnormal behavior?

Outcomes are a result of interactions between genetic vulnerabilities and experience

genetics may make people more likely to seek out certain environments, thus affecting their experiences

What are epigenetics? Describe evidence for the claim that environmental influences (e.g., stress, nutrition) can affect the expression of certain genes both for the individual and descendants.

epigenetics- environmental influences (stress, nutrition) actually affect the expression of certain genes both for the individual and descendants

*rats who were born to anxious moms (i.e. genetic influence = anxiety) but raised by calm moms (i,e, environmental influence =calm) grew up calm so that means environmental influences overrides genetic influences

Describe the relationship between the following components of a neuron: a) cell body; b) dendrites; c) axon; d) terminal button; e) synapse. Describe the process involved in neuronal stimulation.

easy

What is a neurotransmitter? How might neurotransmitters be related to some forms of psychopathology?

a neurotransmitter is some sort of chemical messenger that carries messages to a post synaptic cell for a specific message to be carried out

Some neurotransmitters are related to some forms of psychopathology because chemicals in our brain play a role in depression, ADHD, happiness, etc so if our brain is not getting enough release of a certain chemical, disorders may occur.

Describe the physiology of fear and the "flight or fight" reaction.

Fear weakens our immune system and can cause cardiovascular damage, gastrointestinal problems such as ulcers and irritable bowel syndrome, and decreased fertility.

increased blood flow to muscles, increased heart rate, decreased digestive function

Be prepared to define and recognize examples of contingencies of reinforcement and punishment.

ok

Describe the learned helplessness model. How has this model been used to explain the development and maintenance of depression?

Learned helplessness is behavior that occurs when the subject endures repeatedly painful or otherwise aversive stimuli which it is unable to escape from or avoid. After such experiences, the organism often fails to learn or accept "escape" or "avoidance" in new situations where such behavior is likely to be effective.

Define modeling (or observational learning). Describe how social learning theory (developed by Albert Bandura) has been applied to explain the development of both normal and abnormal behavior.

Modeling or observational learning is when an individual learns certain behaviors by observing others.

Social Learning Theory is a theory of learning and social behavior which proposes that new behaviors can be acquired by observing and imitating others

What is prepared learning? How has the concept of preparedness be applied to explain differences in the rates of phobic reactions to various stimuli?

In psychology, preparedness is a concept developed to explain why certain associations are learned more readily than others. For example, phobias related to survival, such as snakes, spiders, and heights, are much more common and much easier to induce in the laboratory than other kinds of fears.

Describe the three components of emotion.

Behavior-Basic patterns of emotional behavior (freeze, escape, approach, attack) that differ in fundamental ways; emotional behavior is a means of communication

Cognitive-Appraisals, attributions, and other ways of processing the world around you that are fundamental to emotional experience.

Physiology- Emotion is a brain function involving (generally) the more primitive brain areas; direct connection between these areas and the eyes may allow emotional processing to bypass the influence of higher cognitive processes.

Describe the physiological effects of: a) chronic anger; b) suppressing negative emotions.

• Chronic hostility increases risk for heart disease

• This effect is stronger than many physiological risk factors

• Efficiency of heart pumping is decreased when angry

◦ This effect is reversed when people practice forgiveness toward an

offense

gene

sequence of DNA that codes for a protein and thus determines a trait

neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons

agonist

A chemical that mimics the action of a neurotransmitter.

re-uptake

a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron

mood

a temporary state of mind or feeling.