Ancient Rome terms final

Middle Republic army

50/50 Roman and socii. Full numbers around 20,000.

Imperium

The legal Roman right to command an army.

Prorogatio/proconsul, propraetor

Asked to extend their term as needed; no longer a consul, but has the powers of one.

Quaestor

Handles pay and supply requisitioning. Assigned to magistrate by Senate.

Military tribunes formation

6 per legion. 4 elected by the troops and 2 chosen by the consul. Typically 24 per year.

Provincia

One’s assigned sphere of activity. Eventually become overseas territories.

Dilectus phase one

Held before March. All iuniores (17-46) called to the Capitoline Hill by tribe for military draft. Approximately 7000 iuniores per tribe.

Formula togatorum

“The list of toga-wearers.” Outlined how many soldiers every socii community owed to the Roman army.

Sacramentum militare

The oath of military service. One soldier says the oath, then every other recruit agrees.

Dilectus phase two

Recruits gather on the campus Martius outside the pomerium to be divided into classes by military tribunes. Informed of equipment obligations and muster point, then dismissed again.

Pomerium

The sacred, religious boundary around Rome. Baring arms was forbidden.

Infantry (pedites) class formation

Each class elects 20 centurions. Centurions choose junior officers. Army is divided into maniples of 120, then divided into centuries of 60.

Primus pilus

“First spear.” The most experienced soldiers.

Velites

The infantry class with the youngest (regardless of financial standing) and poorest (regardless of experience) recruits. Armed with sword, small shield, and javelins.

Hastati

The line behind the velites. Young men lightly armed with gladius, shield, javelins, and armor.

Princeps

Mature, experienced soldiers. Carried more expensive equipment, including chainmail.

Triarii

The oldest and most experienced soldiers. Acted as the final defensive line.

Payment in the military

Roman soldiers docked for food and equipment. Socii fed for free.

Paterfamilias

The oldest male relative.

Patria potestas

The paterfamilias’s legal authority until death.

The paterfamilias’s powers

Total control over all family financial resources, power of death over all dependents, power to reject marriages.

Castitas

Having infrequent intercourse with one’s husband.

Pudicitia

The modesty expected of a woman.

Sine manu marriage

The wife remains under the legal dependence of her original paterfamilias.

Cum manu marriage

The wife becomes the dependent of the husband’s paterfamilias. Her property would become his property.

Concubinage

A recognized long-term partnership that Romans treated very similarly to a marriage. Frequently between two people who legally could not marry.

Common causes of divorce

Infidelity, infertility, and mutual incompatibility.

Oppian law

195 BCE: Places severe restrictions on what women are allowed to wear. Elite women protested.

Manumission

Free enslaved people. Minimum age: 30, but frequently waived.

Vernae

Children born enslaved.

Latifundia

Vast, privately owned agricultural estates worked by enslaved people.

Potestas

The ability to force others to do as you wish.

Dominium

Power exercised by a paterfamilias over his dependents.

Peculium

Enslaved person gains personal use of certain property, even if it legally still belongs to their owner.

Late Republic’s class landscape

Growing class of landless citizens as nobiles took over latifundia.

Publius Cornelius Scipio Aemilianus

Elected consul before being made praetor/aedile. In charge of successful conclusion to Third Punic War. Elected again for a second campaign in Spain.

Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus

Cousin of Scipio Aemilius. Proposes land reform laws as tribune of plebs. Attempts to run for re-election and is beaten to death in public.

Tiberius Gracchus’s land reform

Proposes that ager publicus be divided into small plots and distributed to landless Romans. Will use inheritance from King Attalus of Pergamum to fund it.

Gaius Sempronius Gracchus

Younger brother of Tiberius. As tribune, establishes the “grain dole”, limits senatorial prerogatives, and proposes citizenship for most Italian allies. Failed third re-election bid ends in violence.

Grain dole

The legally protected right of Romans to purchase a certain amount of grain per month at a fixed price from the state.

Lucius Opimius

Consul who acts on SCU to slaughter Gaius and his 3000 supporters.

SCU (senatus consultum ultimum)

“The final decree of the Senate.” Grants unlimited powers to prevent harm to the Republic.

Cimbri and Teutones

Northern European migrants who invade in 113 BCE. Deal blows to Roman armies in 113, 109, 107, and 105 BCE.

Gaius Marius

Novus homo elected consul seven times. Captures Jugurtha and defeats the Cimbri and Teutones. Flees Rome into exile after Sulla takes it by force, later returns as consul in 86 BCE with Cinna.

Marcus Livius Drusus

Tribune of plebs who attempts moderate versions of Gracchus reforms. Assassinated.

The Social War

Confederation of socii establish capital at Italica and assemble army of 100,000. Essentially a civil war from 91-88 BCE.

Aeclanium

Major battle site of The Social War.

Lucius Cornelius Sulla

Former quaestor under Marius. Elected consul for 88 BCE. Marches on Rome twice. Appointed dictator in 82 BCE. Has thousands of opponents slaughtered before resigning in 79 BCE.

Sulla’s “reforms”

Appoints more than 450 new senators; cursus honorum made mandatory; tribunate of plebs neutralized; all officials serve their elected year in Rome, then proceed to a governorship.

L. Cornelius Cinna

Consul for 82 BCE. Allies with Marius and takes up the mantle of the anti-Sulla cause. Finishes enrolling Italian allies as citizens.

Battle of the Colline Gate

Sulla defeats opposition and is appointed dictator.

First permanent provinciae

From 227 BCE: Sicily, Corsica/Sardinia.

Lex provinciae

Defines the boundaries of the province and its obligations towards Rome. Declares a newly captured territory to be a province.

Provincials’ citizenships

Most are not citizenships, though foundation of colonia fairly common. Most citizens who found colonies lose their citizenships.

The Roman governor

By the late Republic, normally a former magistrate acting as proconsul. Exercises imperium within province. Travels with a quaestor, legati, and friends.

Governing the province

Issues edict outlining basic approaches to immediate issues. Adjudicates disputes, hears communities’ concerns, pacifies revolts, defends province. Bribery and extortion common.

Publicani

Tax collectors serving in societates publicanorum. Belonged to the equites class.

Equites class

Originally referred to Romans whose property classification was high enough they could afford houses. Eventually means the wealthy who are not senators.

Public contracts

Auctioned off by censors every five years, includes five-year tax contracts for major provinces. The publicani bid competitively, then are expected to deposit their bid into the treasury over the next five years.

Tributum capitis

Poll tax — a set amount per person, per province.

Lex Calpurnia de Repetundis

Establishes permanent court for trying extortion cases. Initially an entirely senatorial jury, so conviction was extremely rare.

Gracchus’s repetundae legislation

Places the juries in the hands of the equites, making successful prosecutions more frequent. Control given back to senate during Sulla’s dictatorship.

Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus

Leads many successful victories for Sulla, serves as consul with Crassus, forms Triple Alliance with Caesar and Crassus, redraws the Eastern borders, eventually flees to Greece after Caesar marches on Rome.

M. Aemilius Lepidus

Consul for 79 BCE. Causes outbreak of new civil war, forms Triumvirate with Antony and Octavian, eventually exiled.

Q. Sertorius

Establishes anti-Sullan power base in Spain. Fights Pompey for years before is killed by internal treachery.

Revolt of Spartacus

Tens of thousands of gladiators defeat multiple Roman state armies, are eventually defeated by M. Licinius Crassus and 6000 are crucified on the Via Appia.

M. Licinius Crassus

Serves as consul with Pompey, then censorship. Forms triple alliance with Pompey and Caesar, attempts invasion of Persia and is killed.

Lex Gabinia

Gives Pompey sweeping, open-ended powers for five years to defeat Cilician pirates.

Lex Manilia

Assigns Asia to Pompey, where he resumes war against Mithridates, King of Pontus.

Pompey in the east

Reduces kingdoms of Armenia and Judaea to clientage, expands territory in Syria, Black Sea, and Mesopotamia, more loot acquired than any Roman in history.

M. Tullius Cicero

Respected orator. Becomes novus homo in Pompey’s absence. Uses SCU to execute Catiline conspirators. Eventually has head and hands nailed to the Rostra.

Conspiracy of Catiline

Catiline engages in conspiracy to take office by force.

Gaius Julius Caesar

Born from a patrician family. Leads successful campaign in Hispania Ulterior, elected consul in 59 BCE and forms alliance with Pompey and Crassus, expands territory in Gaul, eventually declares himself dictator for life before his assassination.

Caesar in Gaul

Vast conquests and huge publicity. Crosses to Britain in 55 BCE.

Battle of Carrhae

Crassus’s attempted invasion of Persia ends in one of the worst defeats in Roman history. Triple Alliance down to two.

Battle of Pharsalus

Caesar and Pompey meet in open battle. Pompey flees to Egypt, but is killed by Ptolemy.

Marc Antonius

Serves as magister equitum while Caesar is abroad. Assumes command in Gaul after Caesar’s death, forms Triumvirate with Lepidus and Octavian, eventually “marries” Cleopatra, defeated by Octavian and commits suicide.

Clementia

Caesar’s Senatorial enemies who surrender to him or are captured are spared.

Caesar as dictator

Settles tens of thousands of veterans, reduces the size of the grain dole, creates the Julian calendar, given permanent title of imperator, wildly popular with the public.

M. Junius Brutus and C. Cassius Longinus

Both praetors appointed by Caesar, lead the conspiracy against him.

Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus

Caesar’s great-nephew, left nearly all his inheritance to him at 19. Raises an army, made consul at 19 without previous office, forms Triumvirate with Lepidus and Antony, reinforces propaganda against Antony.

Triumviri rei publicae constituendae/ Second Triumvirate

“Council of three for restoring the republic.” Formed by Antony, Lepidus, and Octavian for five years. Effectively a triple dictatorship.

Battle of Philippi

Joint army of Antony and Octavian defeats and kills Brutus and Cassius.

Summit at Brundisium

Triumvirate renewed. Antony receives control of the East, Lepidus gets Africa, Octavian gets Gaul and Italy.

Battle of Naulochus

Octavian’s campaigns against Sextus Pompey end with assistance from Antony.

Donations of Alexandria

Antony honors Cleopatra as his wife and promises her large swaths of Roman territory.

Antony’s will

Allegedly registered with the Vestal Virgins. Declares Cleopatra to be his lawful wife and their children to be his lawful heirs. Publicized by Octavian.

Battle of Actium

A naval battle fought between Octavian’s fleet and Antony and Cleopatra’s. Antony and Cleopatra abandon their forces and flee to Alexandria.

Siege of Alexandria

Octavian pursues Antony and Cleopatra after the Battle of Actium. Alexandria falls in early August, and Antony and Cleopatra both die by suicide.

First Settlement

Octavian’s stage-managed restoration of the Republic. Retains power over all military provinces. New name: Augustus.

Second Settlement

Augustus surrenders consulship after hearing of assassination plot. Gives himself maius imperium and tribunicia potestas. Becomes princeps.

Maius imperium

Supreme legal authority in the Roman Empire, granting the holder power superior to any other magistrate or provincial governor (proconsul).

Tribunicia potestas

Provided emperors with the legal power of a plebeian tribune—without being one—enabling them to veto any legislation, convene the Senate, and act as a protector of the people.

Princeps

“The first man” — the number one in charge.

Pater patriae

“Father of the fatherland.”

Urban cohorts

A rudimentary police/peace keeping force.

Vigiles

3000 night watchmen, primarily for fire.

New army structure

300,000 serve twenty years in the field, five years in reserve, then receive bounty thirteen times their annual salary.

Imperial provinces

Governed in practice by legates.

Procuratores

“Caretakers/overseers” appointed by the princeps. Effectively become imperial officials.