AP US Government and Politics 2025
Unit One: Foundations of American Democracy
Big Ideas
Constitutionalism- The US Constitution creates a system for checks and balances between branches, dividing power between the federal and state governments to balance majority rule with minority rights.
Liberty and Order- Government laws and policies balancing order and liberty are based on the U.S. Constitution and have been interpreted over time.
Civic Participation in a Representative Democracy- Popular sovereignty, individualism, and republicanism are important considerations of US laws and policy, making the assumption that citizens will participate and engage in policies and politics.
Compelling Policy-Making Interests- Multiple institutions and actors interact to produce and implement possible policies.
Methods of Political Analysis- Using various types of analyses, political scientists measure how US political behavior, attitudes, and ideologies are shaped by a number of factors over time.
Declaration of Independence- Document formally announcing the American colonies’ separation from Great Britain, establishing the colonies as independent states.
Articles of Confederation- The first established document of the US government. Created a sovereign, national government and limited the rights of the states to conduct their own diplomacy and foreign policy.
Shay’s Rebellion- Farmers’ rebellion against the government over taxes, which is the reason officials began to dislike the AOC.
Connecticut/Great Compromise- compromise to have a bicameral legislature composed of the House of Representatives and the Senate.
Electoral college- Elects president, Congress elects president based on who they represent. Gives smaller states more power.
Bill of Rights- necessary to ratify the Constitution.
3/5s Compromise- Compromise that enslaved people would count as 3/5th of a person for population counts for representation.
Slave Trade Clause- Article 1, Section 9 of the Constitution stated that Congress could not prohibit the importation of people before 1808.
Fugitive Slave Clause- Part of the Constitution that required escaped enslaved people, who fled to another state, to be returned to their owners.
Amendment Process- 2/3s of both houses of Congress shall deem it necessary can propose amendments to the Constitution, or if 2/3 of the states call a convention to propose a change.
Contemporary issues- surveillance/privacy rights (US patriot act, civil liberties, Education)
14th Amendment- Birthright citizenship and equal protection under the law.
McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)- the court decided that the federal government had the right and power to set up a federal bank, and the states did not have the power to tax the federal government.
U.S. v Lopez (1995)- Possession of a handgun near a school is not an economic activity and doesn’t have a substantial effect on interstate commerce, and therefore cannot be regulated by Congress.
Vocabulary
Constitutionalism- Commitment to a system of government.
Popular Sovereignty- People get to vote on what they want, most popular thing wins.
Natural Rights- People are born with certain rights that are given to them by their creator. Life, Liberty, and Property- Hobbs
Social Contract- an agreement between the people and the government to give up some rights for protection, etc. People can overthrow the government if it is not serving them well because of this.
Limited Government- Government does not have full power and can only make decisions on certain issues. Inspired by the Enlightenment
Rule of Law- Restriction of the arbitrary (whim) exercise of power by subordinating (treating lesser) it to well-defined and established laws.
Republicanism- A System that replaces or accompanies inherited rule. Emphasis on liberty and rejects corruption. People elect leaders to represent them and create laws in the public interest. The
Grand Committee- A group of delegates, one from each state present at the constitutional convention, tasked with finding a solution to the representation dispute between large and small states.
Federalists- A person who advocates or supports a system of government in which states unite under central authority.
Anti-Federalists- People who opposed the ratification of the US Constitution, fearing it created a central government with too much power and threatened states’ rights and individual freedoms.
Confederal system of government- A political union of sovereign states that retain significant authority, granting minimal power to a weak central government.
Federal system of government- A System of government that divides and shares powers between central and regional governments.
Unitary system of government- A state governed as a single entity in which the central government is the supreme authority.
Checks and balances- The ability of each government branch to respond to the actions of the other branches, and change the acts of other branches.
Separation of powers- division of government responsibilities into distinct branches to limit any one branch from having too much power.
Access points- Any point in the government or policy-making process where citizens, interest groups, and other stakeholders can influence policy.
Impeachment- Process of bringing charges against a government official for wrongdoing. A trial may be held, and an official may be removed from office.
Federalist 51 Madison- The Structure of the government must furnish the proper checks and balances between the different departments.
Federalism- A system of government in which the same territory is controlled by two levels of government.
Exclusive Powers- Powers wielded by either the federal or state governments.
Expressed Powers- Powers of the national government explicitly listed in the Constitution
Supremacy Clause- designates the Constitution as the “supreme law of the land”. When there is a conflict between a state and the Constitution, the Constitution wins.
Reserved Powers- Powers reserved for the states, which allow states to legislate on matters such as education, healthcare, and transportation.
Concurrent Powers- Powers shared by both the federal and state governments.
Federal Mandates- requirements imposed by the federal government on state or local governments to perform specific actions tied to funding.
Federal Revenue Sharing- the dispensing of a portion of federal tax revenue to state and local governments to assist in meeting their monetary needs.
Federal Block Grants- A grant from the central government that a local authority can allocate to a wide range of services.
Federal Categorical Grants- money granted by the federal government to state and local governments with strict limitations on how it is to be spent.
Commerce Clause- refers to Article 1, Section 8, Clause 3 of the Constitution, to gives Congress the power to regulate commerce with foreign nations, among the states, and with Native tribes.
Necessary and Proper Clause- Congressional power encompasses all implied and incidental powers that are conducive to the beneficial exercise of an enumerated power.
Participatory Democracy- Citizens are active in and participate in decision-making.
Pluralist Democracy- Recognizes diversity, allowing competition and negotiation among groups to influence policymaking and government.
Elite Democracy- privileged control, and the majority of the citizens have limited authority.
Foundational Documents
Declaration of Independence
Outlined the reasons for the official break from British rule, emphasizing the principles of individual rights and government by consent. It is inspired by Enlightenment thinkers, particularly John Locke, who argued for natural rights and the social contract.
Three sections
preamble- Justification for leaving Britain. The purpose was to rally troops and get allies. People have natural rights, and it is the government that is supposed to protect those rights with the consent of the people (social contract, personal sovereignty). People can revolt and rebuild the government if they are being tyrannical.
List of grievances against King George III
Imposing taxes without consent.
Denying the right to trial by jury.
Dissolving colonial legislatures.
Maintaining a standing army in peacetime without the consent of the governed.
Quartering troops in private homes.
Restricting trade and commerce.
resolution for independence
Articles of Confederation
First constitution to create confederacy (central power) but allowed states to retain power, freedom, and independance and gave states all power not explicitly stated. it only had the legsilative branch as well. each state had one vote. needed central government for foreign trade. states in charge of creatintg thier own armies. could only fix issues between states and needed super majority to declare war or alter aoc unless all states agreed. many flaws but was recreated because it suckes.
No power over taxes, and had to request money from the states.
No federal court
Could not regulate trade
No executive branch
All states must agree to amend
Representation was equal among all states.
States had to raise their own army.
Could not solve disputes between states
States have sovereignty
9/13 states had to agree to pass laws
Constitution
recreated government with republican democracy solving issues of aoc.
Collected taxes without assistance from the states.
Supreme Court and lower courts were created.
Has the authority to regulate trade
Executive board created
president
vice president
select cabinet
Amendments happen when 2/3 of Congress or at a constitutional convention, and 2/3 states agree.
Bicameral legislator for representation.
Senate -2 per state
House of Representatives- based on population
Congress can declare war and provide armies.
Can regulate interstate commerce
Has power over states, but states can go against it as well.
If it is not explicitly stated to be a federal power, it goes to the states.
For a law to be passed, it must be passed by the Senate, the House of Representatives, and the president.
Articles
Introduction
When the country was created, the Founding Fathers created the Articles of Confederation, which unfortunately did not work. The Articles of Confederation divided the country instead of unifying it because it gave the majority of the power to the states and not the federal government, causing issues between the states, and did not allow the country to adapt to the needs of the people.. The Federalists and Antifederalists had to agree on how to unify the country, fixing the issues the Articles of Confederation created or avoided from a lack of national government. The Constitutional Convention was held and created the Constitution. The Constitution created a strong central government, allowing the United States to be able to unite.
Article 1
Article 1 discusses how Congress is supposed to be led. The regulations for both the House of Representatives and the Senate are outlined in Article 1, as well as their respective duties and responsibilities. As Congress, they are required to meet as a whole once a year, typically the first Monday of December unless said otherwise. Congress also participates in creating and passing laws, and even if the president vetoes a bill, it can be overridden. All votes for bills must be recorded, saying who voted yes or no for each thing. Congress has the power to collect taxes and regulate money, but it cannot tax native american tribes. With the taxes collected, they will establish roads, post offices, and raise and support armies. Congress will declare war and punish piracies and felonies. Congress will be paid by the treasury of the United States. There are no titles of nobility, and they must not take any money from the treasury; and vendors would not have to pay taxes for leaving their state. States cannot implement tariffs or go to war without the consent of Congress. Article 1 contributes to the operation of the government by deciding how the legislative branch works and how people become part of Congress.
Article 2
Article 2 discusses the executive branch, explaining how a person can become president and the powers they hold. A president's term lasts four years and is elected with their vice president. Each state will put people as electors who are not senators or representatives holding office or profiting from the United States, who will vote for president. The person with the most votes is the president. If the votes by the Electoral College are equal, the House of Representatives can elect a president. If there is no majority, then the states will each have one vote and pick from the top five candidates. Only natural-born citizens of the United States can be president, and they must be over thirty-five years old, as well as have been residents for fourteen years. If the president and vice president are unable to perform their duties, Congress can choose an acting president until a new president is elected. Presidents cannot change their pay during their term. Before entering office, they must take an oath to perform their duties to the best of their abilities. Presidents are the Commander-in-Chief of the army and have the power to grant reprieves and pardons except in the case of impeachment. Presidents do not have unlimited power and must have permission from Congress to make treaties and declare war. The President can appoint people to vacancies in the Senate. The president has to update Congress on the state of the union, especially in extreme times, and make sure laws are faithfully executed. The president and vice president can be impeached for conviction of treason, bribery, or other high crimes. This is important because the executive branch is a main part of the government.
Article 3
Article 3 discusses the responsibilities of the judicial branch. The Judicial branch consists of the Supreme Court and inferior courts. Judges hold their offices during good behavior and shall be paid for contributions made during their time in office. Judges can have lifelong terms unless they are impeached. Their power extends to cases in law and equity under the Constitution. They shall deal with controversies between the US, States, and citizens against other citizens or other states. The Supreme Court has jurisdiction over both law and fact. All trials except for impeachment will have a jury, and the trial will be in the state where the crime was committed, but when not committed in a state, it should be where Congress decides. Congress can declare punishments for treason, but not attainder of treason. The judicial branch is important because it ensures that the laws that the other branches create are followed.
Article 4
Article 4 guarantees the states' right to their own power and having their own government, recognizing laws, getting rid of discrimination based on states, and having criminals serve punishment in the state where the crime was committed. Congress can make general laws, but the states choose how they act based on that. Citizens of states are entitled to the privileges of citizens in several states. If a person commits a crime and goes to another state must be returned to the state where the crime was committed and cannot be released with probation or community service. New states can be added to the union, but they must not be formed where another state already exists without consent from the state concerned. Congress has the power to make rules and regulations on land and property in the country. The US guarantees states in the union to have a republican form of government and protects them from invasion and domestic violence. Article 4 guarantees State rights and state power, which was very important to the antifederalists.
Article 5
Article 5 is the process of amending the Constitution and adding or changing an amendment. Any amendment to be put in the Constitution must be proposed and ratified. Any combination of proposal and ratification will successfully be added to the constitution. Four ways to amend the Constitution. It can be proposed by a ⅔ vote in both houses of Congress or 2/3s of the states calling a convention. Amendments can be ratified by a ¾ vote of state legislatures or a ¾ vote of state conventions. This allows for the majority of Congress to agree on amendments and allows them to add amendments whenever they believe it is necessary. This allows for the constitution to adapt as things happen, making it a living document.
Article 6
Article 6 demonstrates that the federal laws and the Constitution have the overall say over the land. This includes treaties and authority over the country, and judges in every state must be bound by the Constitution. Debt from the Confederation is absorbed by the federal government, and lawmakers are required to take an oath to support the Constitution. The founding fathers added that to the Constitution so the states would not argue who had to pay the debts still since it would be the federal government that dealt with the debts and could collect taxes from the people to pay those debts. The judicial branch must be bound by the Constitution because there needs to be some way of keeping things fair across the nation. That includes never requiring religion to be part of the government or testing officials on religion.
Article 7
Article 7 states that ratification requires nine states to agree and the unanimous consent of the states. It continues to mention all of the government officials who agreed to the ratification of the Constitution because the Articles of Confederation needed to be ratified. It is important because without Article 7, none of the articles of the Constitution would be upheld. That is because, without agreement to the Constitution, the United States of America would still be using the Articles of Confederation. Ratification allows the national government to have more power and be able to effectively run the country.
Amendments
Brutus 1
Brutus 1: A key anti-federalist essay that argues against the ratification of the Constitution, emphasizing the dangers of a strong national government and advocating for the protection of individual liberties. Can a federalist government be good for the us is what is being asked, or if they should give more power to the states. A necesary and proper clause is needed, and supremusy clauses are issues with him, so that is why the reserved rights clause is created. Taxes is also in issue with the federal government taking taxes from people because the states need to take taxes as well. he also mentions the same for courts because of being at the state and federal level. he also says a small territory is better because it will be too hard to deal with nations as spread out. After all, representatives need to know their people but cant if they are too spread out.
Federalist papers
Federalist Papers: A series of 85 articles written by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay that defend the principles of the Constitution and advocate for a strong federal government to ensure stability and protect the rights of citizens.
Federalist No. 10 (James Madison): Addresses the problem of factions (number of citizens united and actuated by some common impulse of passion or of interest who impose their beliefs on others), arguing that a large republic with a representative government is the best way to control the effects of factions, as it provides a greater diversity of interests and makes it more difficult for any single faction to dominate. Stopping factions would be terrible and destroy liberty, so we must allow them and limit their powers. Need a republic where we have representatives. Fractional power will be limited as we grow because it will not grow as much, and others will form as well, so they will be competing, meaning they will have to compromise to help the interests of the people.
Federalist No. 51 (James Madison): Explains the system of checks and balances and separation of powers within the proposed government, emphasizing how these structural features are designed to prevent any one branch from becoming too powerful and to protect liberty by enabling each branch to resist encroachments by others.