Project 3

4 change theories (van de Ven & Poole)

Lifecycle

Teleology

Dialectics

Evolution

Lifecycle theory

Birth → Growth → Maturity → Decline

Change is imminent, unitary sequence. Characteristics from earlier are retained later on. Stages derive from an underlying process

Teleology change theory

End state or purpose or goal is the final cause for change. Assumes the entity is purposeful and adaptive.

Development is a sequence of goal formulation, implementation, evaluation and modification of goals

Rogers 5 stages of innovation

Need recognition

Research on problem

Development of idea in useful form

Commercialization

Diffusion and adoption

Dialectics change theory

Stability and change are explained by the balance of power between entities. Change occurs when oppossing values, forces or events gain sufficient power to confront the status quo.

Thesis and antithesis lead to conflict leads to synthesis

Evolution change theory

recurrent, cumulative progression of variation, selection and retention. Selection occurs through the competition for scarce resources.

Hard change

Change in patterns of resource allocation, organization structure and processes

Soft change

Change in central believes that members of an organization hold about the organization, the nature of its environment and the competition and how it competes

Change content

The way and what of change, required future state of the organization and its relationship to the current state

Change process

How is the change implemented?

Outer context

External environment

Inner context

Internal organizational context: control systems, power and politics of the organization

Managerial capablities for change agents

AJTI

Analytical

Judgemental

Translation

Implementation

Analytical skills of change agent

Create a holistic picture of the organization (inner context)

Judgemental skills of change agent

Recognize what is critical in a particular change context and design a change process that adresses it

Translation skills of change agent

Moving between vocabularies associated with formulation of strategy and vocabularies of change implementation

Implementation skills of change agent

Take action and decide which intervention to make and in what order to apply them

Change path

Type of change in terms of nature of the change and desired end result

Change start-point

Where the change is initiated and developed. (top-down, bottom-up, pockets of good practice)

Change style

Management style such as highly collaborative or more directive

Change target

Targets of interventions such as attitudes, values, behaviours or outputs

Change levers

Range of levers across the four subsystems: technical, political, cultural, interpersonal

Change roles

Who is responsible for change?

Results of change: transformation

Redefinition of mission or purpose, touching all cultural, structural and processual aspects

Results of change: realignment

Change in the way of doing thins that does not involve major re-appraisal of central assumptions and beliefs. Example: closing stores in a city and opening some in another city

Incremental or big bang

Long or short term. Incremental is longer than 1,5 years (18 months)

Incremental and transformation

Evolution

Incremental and realignment

Adaptation

Big bang and transformation

Revolution

Big bang and realignment

Reconstruction

Change start points

Top-down

Bottom-up

Pockets of good practice

Pockets of good practice

Change initiated in one part of the organization. The department becomes a role model for the rest of the organization

Emperical cycle

Observation → Induction (developing theory) → Deduction (generating hypotheses) → Testing of hypotheses → Evaluation

Problem solving cycle

Driven by a certain business problem:

Problem definition → Analysis and diagnosis → Solution design → Intervention → Evaluation and learning

Generic solutions

Use the problem solving cycle in a number of cases and compare them to find a common solution

5 phase model of field problem solving

1. Problem definition

2. Analysis and diagnosis

3. Solution design

4. Intervention

5. Learning and evaluating

Design approach and development approach

Design: Solution is designed in one go and realized in one go.

Development approach: Solution is designed and realized in a step-by-step learning approach

Conclusion from kellog’s article about hospitals

Even if members of an organization have cultural toolkits available, they can’t implement change unless they have sufficient political toolkits.

Experiment in multiple hospitals where interns were used for cheap labour and having long shifts

Pacific hospital

70s, weak cultural opportunities, weak political toolkit

Made no changes

Bootcamp hospital

90s, strong cultural opportunities and toolkit, weak political toolkit

only slight changes

Advent hospital

00s, Strong cultural toolkits and strong political toolkits

Successfully changed practices

8 contextual features (balogun)

1. Time

2. Scope

3. Preservation

4. Diversity

5. Capability

6. Readiness for change

7. Power

Transition curve

1. Shock (when encountering the need for change)

2. Denial (rationalise the change is not applicable to them

3. Awareness (develop recognition for the need for change)

4. Acceptance

5. Testing

6. Search

7. Integration

Change equation

C = A*B*D>X

Change = level of dissatisfaction * Desirability of proposed change * Practicality.

Needs to be bigger than the personal cost of changing

4 levels of change

1. Technical

2. political

3. Cultural

4. Interpersonal

Technical change

Changing all formal and informal structures and systems

Political change

Changing al formal and informal networks and power systems

Cultural change

Changing all routines, symbols and stories

Interpersonal change

Changing communication, training, management development and education

HR systems

1. Recruitment and selection

2. Performance evaluation

3. Reward

4. Training

5. Development

Vigour (defining engagement)

When work is experienced as stimulating and employees want to devote time and effort to it

Dedication (defining engagement)

When work is percieved meaningful and significant

Absorption (defining engagement)

When employees want to fully concentrate on their work and get immersed in it

Ways to boos engagement

• Have managers facilitate and empower rather than control and restrict

• Managers displaying integrity

• Overarching strategic narrative or big picture provided by leadership

• An effective and empowered employee voice where employees are listened to

Distributive justice

How fair outcomes are. Who gets the job, who gets the bonuses

Procedural justice

How fair the process is used to get to decisions

Interactional justice

Perceptions of actions from people making decisions towards the people affected by decisions

Anticipatory justice

Expectations to which future outcomes will reflect the other 3 types of justice

3 legitimacy strategies

1. Isomorphic adaptation strategy

2. Strategic manipulation strategy

3. Strategy of moral reasoning

Isomorphic adaptation strategy

Corporations changing their organisational practices and adapt to social expectations in order to maintain legitimacy

Coercive isomorphism, mimetic isomorphism and normative isomorphism

Coercive isomorphism

Corporation is driven by pressure to adapt to cultural or institutional expectations of its societal environment

Mimetic isomorphism

Imitating best practices of examplary firms or managers

Normative isomorphism

Managers have the same background and adhere to the same professional standards

Strategic manipulation strategy

When corporations actively influence social expectations through advertisement, dissemination of (mis)information or lobbying

Moral reasoning strategy

Organising an open discourse with stakeholders to discuss pros and cons of practices

2 factors that determine the choice of legitimacy strategy

1. Cost of organizational change

2. Consistency of societal expectations

4 criteria of trustworthiness

1. Ability (to do their job)

2. Benevolence (extent to which trustor detects a concern in the trustee for the welfare of others)

3. Integrity (moral code or set of value)

4. Predictability (Consistent pattern of behaviour)

One best way approach (response strategy)

Even though organisations are different, there is one best way of responding to legitimacy threats.

Contingency approach (response strategy)

Each situation has its one best response, it depends on the circumstances

Paradox approach (response strategy)

Multiple different response strategies can be employed, even if these are in conflict with eachother

Stage management

Manipulating the situation to deliver a message more clearly. For example using an outside facilitator.

Injustice frames

Arguments that allow less powerful members to define traditional practices as questionable or wrong

Alternative identities

Activists outside of the organisation challenging the expectations of a role

Contentious tactics

Collection of practices, often created by social activists, that the less powerful can draw from to challenge the status quo

High costs of change and low consistency of environmental expectations

strategic manipulation or moral reasoning

Moral legitimacy

The acceptability of the organisation and its actions

Cognitive legitimacy

The perception that an organization's actions are appropriate and align with cultural norms and values.

Pragmatic legitimacy

The practical justification of an organization's actions based on the benefits it provides to stakeholders. Can be influenced by strategic manipulation

Political opportunities

Shifting supply/demand, public policies, shifting demographics

Political toolkits

New staffing system, evaluation system, accountability system