PSY341

Ecological Systems Model (Bronfenbrenner)

Diverse influential systems interact with child at multiple levels. Multi-directional child influences and is affected by systems.

Child in the middle, then microsystems, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, chronosystem.

Individual (in the middle) Ecological Model

Represents the individual/child developing and interacting with their environment.

Includes things like genetics, epigenetic, physiology, micobiology, rational theories, cognitive behavioral theories, resilience, etc.

Microsystems (ecological model)

The closest and more direct system to the child. Interact with these things regularly and face to face.

School, clubs, organizations, health clinics, parents, peers, psychology practice

Mesosystems

interactions between the microsystems

Ex. school interacting and influencing parents.

Exosystem

An system that influences the child indirectly.

Includes things like distant family, social welfare system, mass media, health systems, parents friends, local governments, etc.

Macrosystem

Focuses on how culture and wider society affects a child’s development.

Includes things like government/legal systems, economic systems, culture, social norms, and nations.

Chronosystem

Focuses on time and events over time and how they affect development.

Includes historical events, eras, natural disasters and other big events of that time period. Examples could include COVID, WW2, etc.

Early understandings of mental health

Possessed by demons and required treatment, often religious treatment. “Lunatics” — considered dangerous, disliked, and isolated in lunatic asylums with no care. This isolation lead to more medical problem via isolation, disrespectful treatments and abuse. Believed they needed to beat or exorcise the devil out of them. Scorn, beatings, torture, burned at the stake. Later still considered disobedience and immoral. Consistently removed from society.

Mental hygiene

Consumers of psychiatric services and professionals interested in improving the conditions and the quality of treatment of people with mental disorders.

View of children with mental illness

Scorn for women and children. Children, wife-beating, Stubborn Child Laws

Children were slaves, workers, heirs.

Humiliation, scorn, beating, and infanticide— orphanages gradually replaced infanticide for children regarded as less worthy deficient.

Stubborn Child Laws (1654)

Children must obey parents otherwise suffer punishment like physical punishments, execution, etc.

A law which allowed to beat children or bring children to magistrate, jail, or execution

John Locke idea of child psychopathology

Children were emotional sensitive beings, influenced by environment

Jean-Marc Gaspard Itard idea of children and psychopathology

Caring and helpful view towards children. Believed that he could tame the “wild boy of Aveyron” by changing interactions with an environment stimulus.

End of 19th century and childhood psychopathology

Beginning to acknowledge children with problems.

Children with intellectual disabilities —- imbeclies

children perceived to have normal capacity but disturbing behavior —- suffer from “moral insanity”

Mental Hygiene Movement; Beginning of Psychology and Public Health

Reverence for experts and science. Mental health is acknowledged, a science based illness, prevention and treatment.

Beers published his experience of abuse in a mental health institution.

Establishment of the profession of pediatrics-destruction of natural birth and breastfeeding. Environment and early childhood experiences an important influence of mental health.

Freud + Psychoanalysis, Watson + behaviorism.

Childhood experience deemed as important and public experts taught parents latest findings to ensure child rearing to good mental health.

One side of contradictions : Child must be with a good enough mother

Psychoanalytic, mother must be with child, quality of early relationship and mother blaming if mother wasn’t dedicated enough.

On the other side of contradiction : Mother distancing is promoted

Expert control, sick children separated from families, nursery school and summer camp better than parents. Institutionalization of children with apparent deficits. Residential schools for indigenous children.

Past and present biological beliefs

Past : Disease in the person, pessimistic, difficult or impossible to treat, no future, eugenics.

Present : Medical hygiene, disease caused by environment, preventative, education, intervention, hopeful, experts coming in the home, experts and distancing, associated with broken birth, destroyed breastfeeding, schedules, routines.

Implications of historical perspective

Views children, their function, and perceived abnormalities as well as means of treating child are influenced by systematic, societal, cultural perspective

Freud, watson, and eugenics

Contrasting and diverse views about causes, possible prevention, and treatments.

History teaches us : perceptions about children and mental illness influence apparent interactions with clients. Multiple ways of seeing, interpreting, assessing, treating, and researching psychological disorders in children.

Current definitions of Psychological Disorders

Ongoing and consistent pattern of cognitive, emotional, and physical features and behaviors accompanied by and contributing to one or more of the following features.

Psychological, developmental, or biological dysfunction,

impairment or limited emotional cognitive behavioral, or physical function,

increased risk of further disability, physical harm, and discomfort and loss of freedom,

disturbances veers from culturally accepted ways of coping with distress,

and in children and adolescents disorders put normal development at risk.

Statistical deviation approach

Views mental illness by norms defined by statistics and behavior/thoughts that deviate from most in population is considered pathology. But not all rare behavior necessarily imply pathology.

Disability-degree of impairment

To what degree do behaviors interfere with developmentally appropriate function?

But not all children/adolescents display problematic behavior

Degree of emotional distress

Distress

Demonstration of emotional stress

But subjective views and ways of expressing distress

Not all children will show emotional distress of be able to explain what they are feeling.

Harmful dysfunction (Wakefield 1992, 1997 in Wies, 2020)

Two-criteria approach

Dysfunction of natural internal processes : Cognition, perception and ability to learn. Deviations from expected behavior at the developmental stage in specific culture. Disrupt ones ability to engage with world appropriately (ex. communication, social interaction, learning, executive function, decision making, etc)

The dysfunction causes harm : Negative consequences for self or others, harm as seen by cultural standards. (ex. anxiety or depression that interferes with functional social interactions, learning, etc.)

Prevalence

How common is a behavior/illness/disorder is in a specific group. Number of children with disorder in samples/number of children in the sample.

Factors that affect this include (but not limited to) : ethnicity, SES, immigration status, age and more.

Point prevalence

How common is the disorder at a specific. How common was depression in Canadian adolescents in 2021.

Lifetime prevalence

How common is the disorder in general?

Incidence

Percentage of new cases

Comorbidities

Commonly coexisting conditions

Ex. anxiety + depression, ADHD + anxiety/depression, substance abuse and depression, eating disorders and anxiety, etc.

Continuum (development trajectory)

Series of events that occur over time

(ex. Ainsworth et al 1978, Bowlby 1969, Vygotsky 1934-1978)

Phases and stages

Specific timing of tasks and events (ex. Erikson 1950; Freud 1891-1938; Piaget 1952)

Process of increasing differentiation and integration.

Current abilities or limitations are influenced by prior experience, difficulties, and accomplishments in developmental trajectory.

Developmental continuity

Gradual, quantitative and predictive changes

Normal development, each positive change contributes to the next step. Child with known disorder, predictable development pattern.

Developmental discontinuity

Abrupt and qualitative changes that do not allow one to predict future development and behavior.

Break in the normal developmental continuum,

obstructed developmental task,

caused by events in child’s life such as trauma, divorce.

Easier to access if we are aware of normal development, change in specific children.

Multifinality

Variance in development, individuals start out at same point but outcomes vary.

Example : similar genetics, style of parenting, culture, but different expression of symptoms.

Negative or positive events along the way lead to different outcomes for children starting at the same point.

Influences on change : child develops brain tumor, divorce, etc.

Equifinality

Diverse developmental origins influence similar outcomes

Example : Diverse genetics, SES, family style, diversity, yet similar developmental outcome or pathological epxression.

Intrinsic and Environmental Factors

Quality of pregnancy and earlier

Genes, epigenetic

Temperament (experience of goodness of fit or not)

Quality of interaction with significant figures (caregivers, family, friends, teachers, etc)

Quality of stimulus in all domains

Neurobiology (sensitive period — first 45 months)

Systems

Neurons

Brain cell which can transfer information

Axons

the long threadlike part of a nerve cell along which impulses are conducted from the cell body to other cells.

Dendrites

a short branched extension of a nerve cell, along which impulses received from other cells at synapses are transmitted to the cell body.

Myelination

Process of covering axons with myelin

Synapses

Connections between neurons— meaning connection in one area and connection between different areas of the brain.

Neurotransmitters

Chemicals that communicate across a synapse

Neuroplasticity

the ability of the brain to form and reorganize synaptic connections, especially in response to learning or experience or following injury.

Pruning

Elimination of synapses based on which connections are not used and which are reinforced.

Synaptogenesis

The formation of synapses which is integral to creating brain network and for overall architecture of brain connectivity.

Sensitive periods

A time when the organism is ready for development of a specific task or capability, able to absorb and grow at an enhanced rate and if the period of time is missed critical development might not occur.

Organism is really and able to integrate novel tasks, require the experience, missed experience-development deficit. Similar but not identical to zone of proximal development.

Parents, family, system affect on children development and genetics

Turn on and off-gene expression

Sensitive, attuned, or not. Supportive system or not. Goodness of fit or not.

Capacity to accept child’s difference— grieving.

Supportive family system —- or less / Supportive system for family — not.

Resilience

The ability to bounce back. Ability of child to grow, adapt, and cope with their environment through means like coping skills.

What might be contributing to children’s and parent’s capacity to cope or not? : Resilience theory, capacity to bounce back, protective factors, risk factors.

Protective factors

A characteristic at the biological, psychological, or environmental level that is associated with a lower likelihood of problem outcomes or that reduces the negative impact of a risk factor on problem outcomes.

Examples : ability to actualize developmental task, secure attachment, etc.

Risk factors (general term)

A characteristic at the biological, psychological, or environmental level that precedes and is associated with a higher likelihood of problem outcomes.

Examples : broken developmental continuum, insecure attachment, lack of support, chronic poverty, vulnerability.

Adaptive behavior

Behavior that enables a person to cope in their environment with greatest success and least conflict with others. Child develops competence in all developmental domains.

Maladaptive behavior

Behavior that prevents you from making adjustments that are in your own best interest. Interference with adaptive behavior.

Developmental tasks

Functions associated with specific times on the trajectory.

Protective fulfilled tasks — infancy

Form secure attachments, differentiate self from environment, language

Protective fulfilled tasks — middle childhood

Engage with peers, academic achievement, self control, understand and display conduct based on rules.

Protective fulfilled tasks — Adolescence

Academic achievement, successful peer interaction, involved in extracurricular activities, formation of cohesive sense of identity.

Risk Unfulfilled task

Insecure attachment, isolation, unresolved social communication and learning disorder, isolation lack of regulation.

Same as above identity of confused or discomfort with sense of self, isolation, loneliness, inability to function without instruction, lack of goal fulfillment.

Risk factor for disorder example

Failure to achieve developmental goal is a risk factor for disorders

Ex. covered face impairs development of emotional regulation, vulnerable child may have difficulties with behavioral, emotional regulation.

Genetic predisposition, epigenetic.

Increased risk for diathesis stress, anxiety, depression, conduct disorder.

Resilience in Child with Challenges : Protective

Focus on strengths, sensitive parenting-secure attachment, sense of containment. Assist with social emotional interaction, cognitive, motor. Supportive family system. Supportive system (services, empathy, peer support)

Resilience in Child with Challenges : Risk Factors

Focus on weaknesses, parents overwhelmed, unresolved grief (grief over imagined child, child that has disappeared), isolation and distancing (closed schools and services), unresolved grief in family, shame, embarrassment. Minimal community services, lack of interaction between microsystems, isolation.

Who can provide psychotherapy

Psychologists, psychotherapists, counselors, social workers, family therapists, nurses and physicians / surgeons (in ontario)

Who can diagnose and assess individuals

Family physician, psychiatrists, psychologists.

Who can provide extra support or be child family professionals

Occupational therapists, physiotherapists, speech and language pathology

Who can teach, educate and advance life skills for children with mental illness

Teachers

What can researchers do for mental illness in children

Do further research and create policies.

Four main principles when working with children

Autonomy, beneficence, non-maleficence, justice

Autonomy

Integral to all bioethical principles.

People are worthy of being able to make their own decisions about their physical and mental health.

Health care providers (psychologists, psychotherapists, nurses, physicians, and more) respect client goals, provide information enabling clients to make their own decision.

Informed consent and choice

Must be told about what is occurring and have the free will to do as much or as little as they’d like.

Asset until age 16— likely a form to tell them to agree to come and work with the psychotherapist.

Parental guardian, substitute decision maker— needs to weigh the risks versus the benefits. Might need to relinquish talking to a parent to get the person onboard with therapy.

Beneficence

Means advancing clients wellbeing

Non-maleficence

Means do no harm

Justice

Equality, fairness, and accessibility for all in accordance with their needs and capacities.

Nuremberg Code (1947)

Set of ethics codes for conducting research on humans.

Declaration of Helsinki (1964, World Medical Association)

Belmont Report (1978, National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research)

University ethical review boards.

Voluntary participation

Participants/subjects must volunteer without coercion.

What must a participant be told to get ethical voluntary participation

Nature of study, all details and goals

Benefits and risks as a participant

Their exact role and where information will be stored

Confidentiality

That they may leave at any time without sanctions.

Take steps to ensure no harm.

Don’t deceive participants

Debrief

Ethical research with children and families

Same ethics as with adults, but there are special considerations.

Problem children may not understand all implications and consequences.

Must weight benefits versus risk.

Beneficence : benefit to participation for the child

Non-maleficence : Avoid harm

Confidentiality, Transparency, Debriefing

Must keep information disclosed confidential

Right to confidentiality and anonymity not absolute— talk about exceptions to the participant. Change names and stories.

Transparency

Debriefs provide children with information about the study, talk about their experience.

Video asking kids to participate in research

Paints it as a good think, and how children experiments on medicine is under-researched and medicines on children might not have the same effect on children. Talks about how research can help the medical field.

Takes away parental autonomy and focuses on how physicians know best. Shows no negatives and shows how beneficial it can be to participate to convince them that involving their child into research is for the greater good of everyone.

Scientific method

Pose Question

Background Research

Construct Hypothesis

Design Study to Test Hypothesis

Collect & Analyze Data

Draw Conclusions

Replication

Further conclusions

Research question

States the specific issue of problem your paper will focus on investigating and answering

Descriptive study

Aims to try and determine characteristics of a population or particular phenomenon

Experimental design

A study where participants are randomly assigned and a independent variable is manipulated to try and see if there’s a causal relationship.

Observational study design

A study where participants are observed in a nature, often not manipulable situation to see how participants act or react naturally in certain circumstances.

Analytical study design

Either experimental or observational. Observes if theres a relationship between two variables.

Cohort study

Where one or more samples are followed prospectively and subsequent status evaluations with respect to an outcome which is conducted to determine which initial participants exposure characteristics (risk factors) are associated with it.

Meta-analysis

A method of systematically combining pertinent qualitative and quantitative past study research from several selected studies to develop a single conclusion that has greater statistical power.

Sample

A portion that ideally represents the population you’re interested in studying.

Standardization

When a test or process is made uniform or set to adhere specific guidelines. It involves administering and evaluating the item the same way for each person.

Reliability

A measure to see how often a measure produces the same answer when taken multiple times

Validity

A measure to see how accurate the answer produced is to the actual true results.

Ex. a scale that gives the same weigh each time but is consistently 5lbs off has reliability but not validity since it’s 5lb off the true result.

Still face experiment

Mothers interactive actively with their baby and then asked the mother to not respond at all to the baby.

Baby quickly responds and tries to get mothers attention. Begins crying and becoming distressed while trying to get more attention from unresponsive mother.

Demonstrates the importance of facial expression and responsiveness with children. Facial expression tells them a lot about the world, allows them to share emotions with the mother, and has to do with resilience.

Interview Clinical Assessment

Describe child feelings, thoughts and behavior.

Assess child’s development in all domains, and note strengths, weaknesses, adjustment, differences, and compare to developmental norms.

Assessment / Diagnosis

The gathering and integration f data to evaluate a person’s behavior, abilities, and other characteristics in order to come to a conclusion if the individual has a mental illness or other maladaptive characteristics which would suggest getting treatment.

Prognosis

Predictions about future behavior

Treatment planning

Using assessment to create a guide of how to care and the means of evaluating effectiveness.

Neuropsychology

The study of the relationship between behavior, emotion, and cognition in relation to brain function.

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

Measures electrical activities in the brain in different areas of the brain.

Neuroimaging

Procedures studying brain anatomy and function

Structural neuroimaging

Anatomy and brain structure : Magnetic resonance imagine (MRI) and Coaxial tomography (CT) brain structures

Functional neuroimaging

Functional magnetic resonance imagine (fMRI) neural activity; positron emission tomography (PET) scan.

Cerebral glucose metabolism

Diffusion of MRI shows the connection between regions in the brain.