The role of the Secret Police

What was the Cheka and why was it created?

The Cheka was the Bolshevik secret police, created in 1917 by Lenin and led by Felix Dzerzhinsky. Its role was to suppress counter-revolution and sabotage, using extreme ruthlessness.

How did the Cheka operate during the Civil War?

During the Civil War, the Cheka was given wide powers with minimal legal oversight, allowing it to act quickly against real or perceived enemies.

What triggered the Red Terror and what were its consequences?

The attempted assassination of Lenin by Fanya Kaplan in August 1918 led to mass arrests. During the Red Terror (1921–22), the Cheka targeted Socialist Revolutionaries and Mensheviks, with up to 200,000 opponents executed, making execution routine.

How did the secret police evolve after the Civil War?

The Cheka became the GPU in 1922, then the OGPU in 1923. These changes increased its independence from other state bodies, answering directly to the Communist Party leadership.

How did the creation of the NKVD strengthen repression?

In 1934, the OGPU was merged into an expanded Interior Ministry (NKVD), greatly increasing the power and reach of the secret police.

Who were targeted under Stalin’s Five-Year Plans?

Stalin identified enemies to rapid industrialisation, including kulaks and peasants opposing collectivisation, many of whom were deported to the Gulag, run by the secret police.

How did the Great Purges expand repression after 1936?

After the show trials of Zinoviev and Kamenev (1936), purges spread to the Right of the Party (e.g. Bukharin) and the Red Army, accused of foreign conspiracies, leading to mass denunciations.

How were arrests and interrogations carried out?

Arrests were often made at night to disorient suspects. Prisoners were taken to the Lubyanka headquarters, tortured until they confessed. Leonid Zakovsky, OGPU chief in Siberia, even produced a handbook on torture methods.

What were show trials and how were confessions secured?

High-profile victims faced show trials, publicly confessing before being sentenced to death. Confessions were often extracted with promises to spare families (often broken) and by forcing accused individuals to name associates.

The role of Yagoda: how he was appointed

• Yagoda had become head of the secret police in 1934

• He was keen to prove his loyalty to Stalin and this, coupled with his ambitious nature, resulted in a concerted attempt to build up his own empire

The role of Yagoda: What was the Gulag and who expanded it?

The Gulag (Chief Administration of Corrective Labour Camps) was greatly expanded under Yagoda, head of the secret police, becoming a central feature of Stalinist repression.

The role of Yagoda: How did labour camps change from Lenin to Stalin?

Under Lenin, labour camps were used mainly to reform class enemies. In 1930, under Stalin, they were expanded into the Gulag system and transformed into a vast network of forced labour camps.

The role of Yagoda: What role did the Gulag play in Stalin’s economic policy?

The Gulag became a key tool for industrialisation, supplying forced labour to support major economic projects, especially in remote areas.

The role of Yagoda: How did Yagoda strengthen the power of the secret police over the Gulags?

Yagoda used his influence with Stalin to ensure the secret police could send opponents to camps without interference from regular courts.

The role of Yagoda: What was the main purpose of the Gulags under Stalin?

The focus shifted from ideological re-education to economic exploitation, using prisoners as labour to extract resources in regions where people would not live voluntarily.

The role of Yagoda: What were conditions like in the Gulag camps?

Prisoners were sent to extremely hostile environments, suffering from extreme cold and starvation. Death rates were high, affecting not only prisoners but also guards and guard dogs.

The role of Yagoda: White Sea canal

One of Yagoda's achievements was the completion of the White Sea Canal. This 141-mile canal used up to 180,000 labourers from the Gulag, digging by hand rather than using machines. The canal was completed under budget in less than two years but at the cost of at least 10,000 lives. To cut costs, the canal was only dug to a depth of 12 feet (3.6 m), making it useless for most shipping.

The role of Yagoda: The great purge

• Yagoda's influence increased as the number of political opponents arrested rose when the Great Purge began in 1936

• He was given the task of arresting those members of the Party who were alleged to have links with a Trotskyite opposition

The end of Yagoda

• In 1936, he was accused of incompetence in safeguarding Kirov, whose murder had precipitated the purges, and for not pursuing the opposition with sufficient enthusiasm

• Yagoda was removed from office and Stalin had him shot in 1938

The role of Yezhov: Who was Nikolai Yezhov and why did Stalin appoint him?

Nikolai Yezhov replaced Yagoda as head of the NKVD. His enthusiasm for personally torturing suspects impressed Stalin. Small in stature (5 ft), he was nicknamed the “bloody dwarf.”

The role of Yezhov: What characterised the purges under Yezhov’s leadership?

Under Yezhov, the NKVD carried out the most extreme phase of the purges, marked by mass arrests, torture, executions and fear across society.

The role of Yezhov: How did Yezhov justify the purges ideologically?

He framed the purges as a struggle against political opposition to communism and the Soviet state, giving repression an ideological justification.

The role of Yezhov: How did Yezhov speed up repression?

He accelerated arrest, trial and imprisonment using Troikas—three-man courts including an NKVD official. In September 1937, the Karelian Troika processed 231 prisoners per day.

The role of Yezhov: How did Yezhov expand and brutalise the Gulag system?

Yezhov believed the Gulag was underused. Prisoner numbers and death rates rose sharply. In July 1937, he issued execution quotas for camps. NKVD officers who carried out executions were rewarded with medals but were often executed themselves later to meet quotas.

The role of Yezhov: How did surveillance of the population change under Yezhov?

Surveillance greatly increased through plain-clothes police, public informers and heavy use of the Soviet criminal code. NKVD detective numbers quadrupled, and more staff were hired specifically to torture suspects.

The role of Yezhov: How did Yezhov widen the definition of “enemy”?

Anyone who failed to show sufficient commitment to the Revolution could be targeted. Even NKVD members themselves were purged, reinforcing fear throughout society.

The role of Yezhov: What was Yezhov’s personal role in terror?

Yezhov personally enjoyed torturing suspects and once attended a Politburo meeting with blood on his shirt cuffs, symbolising the brutality of his rule.

The role of Yezhov: Why was Yezhov dismissed in 1938?

Stalin became concerned that excessive terror was demoralising the population as war with Germany approached. Yezhov’s poor health and alcoholism worsened matters. Stalin dismissed him in 1938, blaming him for purge excesses.

The role of Yezhov: Why was Yezhov used as a scapegoat by Stalin?

While Yezhov was responsible for extreme violence, it suited Stalin to shift blame onto him in order to reduce terrorwithout admitting his own role.

The role of Beria: Who was Lavrenti Beria and why did Stalin appoint him?

Lavrenti Beria was appointed head of the secret police after Yezhov. He was energetic, highly organised, and ruthless. Despite Stalin being irritated by Beria’s excessive flattery, his efficiency brought him to Stalin’s attention.

The role of Beria: How did Beria secure Yezhov’s removal?

Beria deliberately undermined Yezhov by briefing Stalin with criticisms of Yezhov’s handling of the purges, helping secure Yezhov’s dismissal and his own promotion.

The role of Beria: How was Beria’s appointment received by the population?

Many greeted Beria’s appointment with relief. He was presented as an uncle-like reformer who would curb the excesses of the secret police after the terror of the Yezhovshchina.

The role of Beria: How did Beria change NKVD methods?

Beria believed indiscriminate arrests were inefficient and wasted manpower. He restored more conventional policing: surveillance continued, but arrests and public trials only occurred when solid evidence existed.

The role of Beria: How far did the reach of the Soviet secret police extend under Beria?

The NKVD retained a global reach. One of Beria’s major achievements was overseeing the assassination of Trotsky in Mexico in 1940 by a Stalinist agent.

The role of Beria: What was Beria’s approach to the Gulag system?

Beria aimed to make the Gulag economically productive, not humane. In 1939, inmate food rations were improved solely to maximise labour output.

The role of Beria: How did Beria use prisoners’ skills?

Beria exploited inmates’ technical expertise, assigning specialists to key projects. About 1,000 scientists worked in camps, including Andrei Tupolev (aviation) and Sergei Korolev, later vital to the Soviet space programme.

The role of Beria: How did Beria increase Gulag productivity?

Early prisoner releases were cancelled to retain skilled labour. Gulag economic output rose from 2 billion roubles in 1937 to 4.5 billion in 1940.

The role of Beria:How important was the Gulag under Beria by the early 1950s?

Under Beria, the Gulag reached its largest extent and became a major economic contributor, producing over one-third of Soviet gold and much of its timber and coal.

WW2: How did the approach of the Second World War affect the powers of the secret police?

As war approached, the powers of the NKVD were strengthened significantly to ensure internal security, loyalty, and discipline across both civilian society and the armed forces.

WW2: What role did the NKVD play in supervising the Red Army from 1941?

In 1941, the NKVD was given powers to supervise the Red Army, monitoring disloyalty and dealing harshly with desertion.

WW2: How were national minorities treated during the war?

The NKVD controlled the deportation of national minorities suspected of disloyalty, including Crimean Tatars, Volga Germans, and Chechens. Deportations were extremely harsh and carried out by three-person Troikas operating outside normal law.

WW2: What happened in areas liberated from German control after 1943?

As the Red Army retook territory, Beria created Special Departments to hunt down traitors, deserters, and cowards. Suspected collaborators were shot or sent to the Gulag.

WW2: What was SMERSH and what crimes was it linked to?

SMERSH, a special NKVD department, dealt with suspected spies. It was probably involved in the Katyn massacre (1943), where over 4,000 Polish officers were murdered.

WW2: How were Soviet soldiers who surrendered to Germany treated?

Order 270 classified all Soviet troops who surrendered as traitors. Returning prisoners of war were detained in NKVD camps, and some were forced to clear minefields by walking through them.

Post-war rivalry in Stalin’s final years: What caused rivalry within the Politburo in Stalin’s last years?

As Stalin’s health declined, rivalry grew among Politburo members, each seeking power and Stalin’s favour in anticipation of his death.

Post-war rivalry in Stalin’s final years: How did Beria try to strengthen his position after the war?

Beria, as head of the secret police, attempted to gain influence by launching new purges to demonstrate loyalty and usefulness to Stalin.

Post-war rivalry in Stalin’s final years: What was the Leningrad Affair (1949)?

Beria targeted the Leningrad Party organisation, leading to the imprisonment or exile of over 2,000 Party members in 1949, increasing his influence with Stalin.

Post-war rivalry in Stalin’s final years: Why did Stalin remain a threat to Beria despite Beria’s power?

Although Beria carried out Stalin’s wishes, ultimate power remained with Stalin, who used purges to keep rivals under control.

Post-war rivalry in Stalin’s final years: What was the Mingrelian Affair (1951) and why was it significant?

The Mingrelian Affair involved a purge in Georgia, targeting people of Mingrelian ethnicity, Beria’s own ethnic group, possibly as a warning to Beria.

Post-war rivalry in Stalin’s final years: What was the Doctors’ Plot (1953)?

In January 1953, a group of doctors were arrested and accused of plotting to assassinate Stalin. Most were Jewish, raising fears of a wider anti-Jewish terror campaign.

Post-war rivalry in Stalin’s final years: What may have been the real purpose of the Doctors’ Plot?

It may have been the opening move in a new purge, possibly aimed at eliminating Beria and other senior leaders rather than Soviet Jews specifically.

Post-war rivalry in Stalin’s final years: Why was Beria likely alarmed by Stalin’s final actions?

Stalin publicly criticised the secret police for lack of vigilance, which directly threatened Beria as its head.

Post-war rivalry in Stalin’s final years: What prevented further purges from taking place?

Stalin died before another major purge could begin.

Post-war rivalry in Stalin’s final years: Why was Beria removed after Stalin’s death?

Beria held enormous power—controlling the NKVD, foreign intelligence, the Gulag, and major industrial links. Fearing him, Politburo members moved quickly to remove him in June 1953, led by Khrushchev, whom Beria had underestimated.

end of the secret police’s independence after Beria: What happened to the secret police after Beria’s removal?

After Beria was removed, the Politburo moved quickly to curb the power of the secret police, ending its independence and placing it firmly under Party control.

end of the secret police’s independence after Beria: How was the secret police reorganised under Khrushchev?

The secret police became answerable to a new body, the Soviet Security and Intelligence Service, better known as the KGB, ensuring tighter political oversight.

end of the secret police’s independence after Beria: What happened to the Gulag system under Khrushchev?

Khrushchev dismantled the Gulag system, and forced labour no longer played a role in the Soviet economy, marking a major break with Stalinist practices.

end of the secret police’s independence after Beria: What was the significance of the Lubyanka after Stalin?

The Lubyanka ceased to function as a prison. Its final prisoner was Gary Powers, the US pilot shot down in a U-2 spy plane incident in 1960.

Responsibility for terror: Why is the idea that Stalin was unaware of the Gulag and terror considered naïve?

Although the Gulag existed under Lenin, its massive expansion followed Stalin’s policies from 1928. Stalin took a personal interest in terror, making the belief that he was unaware of conditions deeply unrealistic.

Responsibility for terror: What direct evidence links Stalin personally to the use of terror?

Stalin personally signed death warrants, added comments to arrest lists, demanded additional names, and sometimes added names himself.

Responsibility for terror:How did Stalin use quotas to drive terror?

Stalin gave the NKVD arrest and execution quotas, similar to Five-Year Plan targets. If quotas were not met, local NKVD officers risked adding their own names, encouraging mass arrests.

Responsibility for terror: Why was terror essential to Stalin’s economic policies?

Collectivisation required the removal of kulaks and resistant peasants. The unrealistic demands of the Five-Year Plansforced officials to label people as saboteurs or shirkers to explain failures and protect themselves.

Responsibility for terror: How was forced labour linked to Stalin’s industrial goals?

Historians such as Ivan Chukhin argue terror expanded to supply slave labour for Five-Year Plan targets and prestige projects. Arrests often coincided with new resource exploitation, such as oil in the Komi Republic.

Responsibility for terror: How did Stalin control the timing and scale of the purges?

Stalin set the parameters of terror. Kirov’s death in 1934 triggered the Great Purge, while Yezhov’s dismissal in 1938signalled a slowdown. Stalin’s death led to the dismantling of the Gulag.

Responsibility for terror: How did Stalin’s personality influence terror?

Terror reflected Stalin’s paranoia. Kirov’s assassination worsened his suspicions, and the Doctors’ Plot (1953) reflected anti-Semitism and fear of betrayal by Kremlin doctors.

Responsibility for terror: To what extent were Yagoda, Yezhov and Beria responsible?

All three were willing executors of Stalin’s wishes. They were ruthless, sadistic, and owed their positions to Stalin. Stalin dismissed Yagoda and Yezhov, and Beria fell soon after Stalin’s death.

Responsibility for terror: Did NKVD leaders influence who was targeted by terror?

Targets were decided by Stalin, based on policy needs and paranoia. However, NKVD leaders added names of personal rivals to lists to advance their own careers.

Responsibility for terror: How did Yagoda, Yezhov and Beria differ in implementing terror?

• Yagoda: Oversaw major Gulag expansion but struggled with overcrowding

• Yezhov: Accelerated terror dramatically; excess driven partly by his own sadism

• Beria: Shifted focus to productivity, making the Gulag less chaotic but still brutal

Responsibility for terror: How did Stalin deflect blame for terror?

Stalin portrayed NKVD leaders as his “bad men”, once jokingly introducing Beria as “our Himmler”, distancing himself from responsibility.