Unit 1-3, and 7 Comprehensive Review Set

Cultural Landscape

Built forms that cultural groups create inhabiting Earth and the meaning, values, representations, and experiences associated with those forms

Geographical area shaped by human activity and reflecting cultural practices, beliefs, and values

Distance Decay

Interactions between places weaken as the distance between them increases; things that are close to each other are more likely to be related or have interactions than things that are further apart. Essentially, the further you are from something, the less likely you are to interact with it

Environmental Determinism

Belief that a region's physical environment, including climate, landforms, and natural resources, determines the development and cultural patterns of the people who live there

Ex - Development of Inuit culture in response to the Arctic conditions in which they live

Formal Region

Area that shares one or more common characteristics, such as language, climate, or economic activity, throughout its boundaries

Ex - Cultural or political boundary

Functional Region

A geographic area that has been organized to function politically, socially, culturally, or economically as one unit

Area organized by its function around a focal point (node), or the center of an interest or activity

Ex - businesses or transportation hub

Geographic Information System (GIS)

Computer-based system that captures, stores, analyzes, and displays geographically referenced data used for mapping and spatial analysis

Information stored in “thematic layers”

Global Positioning System (GPS)

Satellite-based navigation system that provides precise location and time information anywhere on Earth

Network of satellites to transmit signals to GPS receivers, allowing for the accurate determination of geographical coordinates

Globalization

The increasing interconnectedness and interdependence of countries and cultures, primarily driven by advancements in technology, communication, transportation, and trade

Human Geography

The study of the processes that have shaped how humans understand, use, and alter Earth and their relationships with the environment, focusing on cultural, economic, and social dynamics

Interdependence

Referring to the mutual reliance between two or more countries, regions, or communities. It means that the actions, economic health, and social conditions of one place significantly influence, and are influenced by, others

Perceptual/Vernacular Region

Geographic area defined by people's beliefs, feelings, and attitudes about a place, rather than by physical or official boundaries and often shaped by cultural identity and experiences

Possibilism

The belief that any physical environment offers a number of possible ways for a society to develop and that humans can find ways to overcome environmental challenges

Relative Distance

A measurement of the level of social, cultural, or economic similarity between places despite their absolute distance from each other

Approximate measurement of the physical space between two places, considering factors like time, cost, and difficulty of travel

Relative Direction

A direction that can be described as position, such as in front of or behind, to the left or to the right; describes the general relationship between places

Scale of Analysis

The geographical area or level of organization used to study and analyze data:

• Global: Encompasses the entire world and ignores borders of countries

• Regional: Focuses on large geographic areas or regions (e.g., West Africa, North America) 

• National: Focuses on a single country (France, Japan, Botswana)

• Local: Focuses on a specific location within a country (e.g., a city, state, province). 

Time-Space Compression

The shrinking of distance and time through advancements in technology, particularly in transportation and communication, leading to greater global interconnectedness and a feeling that the world is smaller

Agricultural Density

Number of farmers per unit area of arable land

Provides insight into a country’s level of economic development and agricultural efficiency

• High Agricultural Density = high number of farmers typically in LDCs with labor-intensive methods and less technology and mechanization (tech/mech)

• Low Agricultural Density = low number of farmers typically in MDCs with a highly mechanized and commercial agricultural system

Antinatilist Policies

Government strategies designed to decrease birth rates and slow population growth; often seen in countries with rapidly growing populations (LDCs); policy could be voluntary or coercive

EX - China's One-Child Policy

Effects of Antinatalist Policies

• Demographic Changes - reduced fertility (birth) rates, gender imbalance, and increased aging population

• Social and Economic Impacts - strain on social services, labor shortages and human rights concerns

Carrying Capacity

The maximum number of individuals a particular environment can sustainably support without degrading the environment or depleting resources

EX - food, fresh water, building materials, sanitation, energy

Factors Influencing Carrying Capacity

• Natural Resources - food, fresh water, energy

• Technology - agricultural practices, water management, renewable energy sources

• Economic Systems - MDCs can import needed materials

• Waste Absorption - environment’s ability to absorb waste and pollution

Demographic Transition Model (DTM)

How crude birth rate (CBR) and crude death rate (CDR) as well as the resulting rate of natural increase (RNI) change over time as countries go through industrialization and urbanization

Framework that describes the shift of a country’s population from high birth and death rates to low birth and death rates, resulting in population growth and changes in society

KNOW THE 5 STAGES!!

Dependency Ratio

The proportion of a population that is considered dependent (too young or too old to work) compared to the working-age population

• Dependent = 0-14, 65 and older

Youth Dependency Ratio (0-14) - higher in LDCs; puts strain on working class related to resources for education, health care, and other services

Elderly Dependency Ratio (65-older) - higher in MDCs; puts strain on working class and government for social security, pensions, and health care

Doubling Time

The number of years it takes for a population to double in size, assuming a constant growth rate

• Rule of 70 - calculate doubling time by dividing 70 by a country’s rate of natural increase (RNI)

• Higher RNI (LDCs) = shorter doubling time

• Lower RNI (MDCs) = longer doubling time

Infant Mortality Rate (IMR)

Number of deaths of infants under one year of age per 1,000 live births in a given year

Factors Influencing IMR

• Access to Healthcare - countries with a high IMR lack sufficient medical facilities, skilled birth attendants, and access to prenatal and postnatal care for mothers and infants

• Nutrition and Sanitation - malnutrition is both mothers and infants leading cause of death; poor sanitation and lack of access to clean drinking water are also a major cause

• Socioeconomic Status - poverty is strongly correlated with a high IMR; lower-income families lack resources for proper nutrition, sanitation, and healthcare

• Education - higher maternal education levels correlate with lower IMR, as educated mothers are more likely to seek healthcare and understand nutrition

Life Expectancy

The average number of years a person is expected to live, given current conditions, including social, economic, and medical factors

• Higher in MDCs (Core) due to advanced healthcare, clean water, proper sanitation, and high standards of living

• Lower in LDCs (Periphery) due to lack of access to medical care, high prevalence of infectious diseases, poor nutrition, and high infant mortality rate (IMR)

Factors Influencing Life Expectancy

• Health care and sanitation

• Nutrition and food security

• Economic Development

• Social and Political Stability

Pronatalist Policies

Government actions or societal norms that encourage or promote population growth by increasing the birth rate or fertility rate of an area

Usually implemented by MDCs (core) - stage 4 or 5 of the demographic transition model

Common Examples of Pronatalist Policies

• Financial incentives (cash bonuses, tax breaks)

• Parental leave (maternity and paternity leave)

• Childcare support (free or subsidized childcare services)

• Public campaigns (public awareness promotion campaign)

Rate of Natural Increase (RNI)

Percentage by which a population grows or declines in a year, solely based on births and deaths NOT migration

Typically higher in LDCs (periphery) and lower in MDCs (core)

Formula - CBR-CDR/10

Chain Migration

Migrant moves to a specific destination because relatives or members of the same ethnic or national group previously migrated there

Impacts of Chain Migration

• Creation of ethnic enclaves

• Increased cultural diversity

• Strain local resources and create tensions with existing communities

Forced Migration

Involuntary movement of an individual or group away from their home or home region due to external threats or coercion such as conflict, persecution, or natural disasters

Key Characteristics and Causes

• Political/Conflict - war, ethnic cleansing, persecution based on race, religion, or nationality

• Slavery/Human Trafficking - forcibly removed against their will

• Environmental - natural disasters that make an area uninhabitable

• Government Mandate - policies that require relocation of a population

Guest Worker

Migrant who is permitted to temporarily reside and work in a country, typically to fill a labor shortage in specific sectors like agriculture, construction, or domestic service - intended to be temporary and not for permanent settlement

Receiving (Host) Country 

• Pros - fills labor shortages and boosts profits and economic output

• Cons - increased social tensions and potential exploitation of workers

Sending (Home) Country

• Pros - remittances sent home and reduced unemployment

• Cons - brain drain and dependence on remittances

Intervening Opportunity

The presence of a nearer, attractive alternative that causes a migrant to settle in a location before reaching their intended, farther destination - Can include job offers, better living conditions, or community connections that encourage migrants to establish residence in a new area

Malthusian Theory

Theory that population growth will outpace food production, leading to widespread famine and societal collapse if not controlled

• Population increases at geometric (exponential) rate while food supply grows at arithmetic (linear) rate

Checks to regulate population from exceeding food supply

• Positive checks - famine, disease, war

• Preventive checks - family planning, delayed marriage

Pull Factors

Positive attributes or conditions in a destination that attract migrants. They are the reasons why people choose to move to a new location, often promising a better quality of life, safety, or opportunity

SPEED!!!!

Push Factors

Negative conditions or forces that compel or encourage people to leave their original place of residence and seek a new home elsewhere. They represent the reasons why someone feels pushed away from their current location

SPEED!!!!

Step Migration

Migration pattern where an individual or family's journey to a final, long-distance destination is completed in a series of smaller, less extreme movements over time

• Typical movement is rural to urban: farm - village - town - major city

• Process reduces risk - helps migrants acclimate to new cultural, social, and economic conditions

Less likely to occur in 21st century with improved transportation infrastructure and time-space compression

Transhumance

Seasonal migration of herders and their livestock move seasonally between their summer and winter pastures

• Vertical transhumance - mountainous regions where livestock in the cooler mountain pastures in the summer and lower elevation valleys in the winter

• Horizontal transhumance - movement based on different latitudes or climatic zones 

Contagious Diffusion

Form of expansion diffusion where a cultural trait, idea, or innovation spreads rapidly outward from its hearth (origin) to nearby places or people; widespread and rapid

Examples of Contagious Diffusion

• Disease - contagious diseases that pass through physical proximity and personal contact (flu, common cold, Ebola, cholera)

• Ideas/Trends - Viral internet meme or TikTok trend

Cultural Relativism

Evaluating a culture or practice from its own perspective and standard

Promotes tolerance, empathy, and a complete understanding of why a trait exists in a specific culture

Cultural Landscape - helps explain why a particular practice or landscape feature exists in a specific location by tying it to that culture’s beliefs, environment, and history

Ethnocentric Approach (Ethnocentrism)

Belief that one's own culture or ethnic group is superior to others and is the standard by which all other cultures should be measured

Evaluating a culture or practice based on the standards of one's own culture; often leads to prejudice, misunderstanding, judging another culture as inferior, or conflict

Hierarchical Diffusion

Form of expansion diffusion where an idea, innovation, or trend spreads by passing first among the most connected individuals or places, then trickling down to the rest of the population or lower levels of the urban hierarchy

Often skips (leapfrogs) over less influential people or smaller places in the initial stages

Examples of Hierarchical Diffusion

• Fashion Trends (starts in major cities)

• New Technology (starts with high-income/wealthy)

• Music Genres (starts in major cities)

• Company Decisions (starts with owner or CEO)

Lingua Franca

Language systematically used to facilitate communication between people who speak different native languages. It is a common language adopted for trade, diplomacy, science, and other international purposes

Examples of Lingua Franca

• English - Colonization by Britain (historical); Internet (contemporary)

• Spanish - Trade in Latin America

• Arabic - Religion (Islam) and trade in the Middle East

• Swahili - Trade and communication in East Africa

Placelessness

Refers to the loss of unique identity and character of a place, resulting in landscapes that look and feel the same regardless of their location; diminishes regional variation and eliminates the unique meanings associated with specific locations

Causes of Placelessness

• Globalization and Economic Uniformity

• Mass Communication and Popular Culture

• Standardized Architecture and Urban Planning

• Increased Mobility and Connectivity

Visualization on the Cultural Landscape

• Retail and Commercial Spaces (shopping malls and big-box stores)

• Housing - “Cookie-Cutter” suburban housing

• Infrastructure - Standardized highway systems, rest stops, and chain hotels/restaurants

Relocation Diffusion

Spread of an idea through physical movement of people from one place to another

When people migrate they bring aspects of culture with them (language, religion, food, dress, architecture, etc.)

Sense of Place

Refers to the emotional and subjective connections people have with a specific geographic location. It is the feeling, meaning, and character that a place is perceived to have, which is shaped by human experience, memory, and culture

Components of Sense of Place

• Physical Attributes - Unique natural and built features of a place (ocean, mountain range, local architecture)

• Human Attributes - Culture, history, language, traditions

• Personal Experience - Memories and emotional bonds

Sequent Occupancy

Notion that successive societies leave their cultural imprints on a place, each contributing to the cumulative cultural landscape

Cultural Imprints

• Architecture and Infrastructure - distinct building styles, road patterns, and historic structures left by past societies

• Land Use - changes in agricultural practices, resource exploitation, and urban development over time

• Place Names (Toponyms) - names of cities, rivers, and streets reflect the language of former groups

• Social and Cultural Practices - enduring traditions, religious sites, and foodways that have been passed down or blended

Stimulus Diffusion

Form of expansion diffusion where the underlying principle or idea of a cultural trait spreads, even though the specific original characteristic or trait itself does not diffuse

Key Characteristics of Stimulus Diffusion

• Core concept adopted, but specific item is rejected or cannot be implemented in the new environment

• Idea adapted to local conditions, resources, or cultural values, creating a new, unique, yet related trait

• Usually the result of barriers (cultural, economic, or environmental) that prevent adoption of original item

Acculturation

Process of cultural and social change that occurs when two distinct cultures come into contact. Typically, this involves a less dominant culture adopting some of the traits (language, customs, beliefs, technology, etc.) of a more dominant or host culture

Minority or adapting culture retains some aspects of its original culture while incorporating elements from the new one

Assimilation

Process where individuals or groups from one culture adopt the practices, values, and behaviors of another, more dominant culture to the extent that they lose their original cultural identity and become socially or culturally indistinguishable from the host group

Dominant culture completely absorbs a less-dominant culture (usually takes a few generations)

Key Characteristics

• Voluntary - driven by social pressure or economic advantage

• Involuntary - forced/coerced - government policies or colonization

Cultural Convergence

Process where different cultures become more similar as they interact and share ideas, values, and practices. Essentially, it's the blending or fusion of cultural elements across societies

Key Drivers of Cultural Convergence

• Globalization - increased interconnectedness of the world through trade, travel, and global communication networks

• Technology and Media - Internet, social media, global media networks - instant sharing

• Migration and Travel - people bring cultural traits to new places where interaction and merging with local practices

• Urbanization - Cities are hubs where diverse populations accelerate cultural mixing

Cultural Divergence

Process where distinct cultural groups become increasingly different from one another over time - divergence happens when factors cause cultures to separate, isolate, or actively resist outside influences, leading to the development of unique and distinct cultural traits

Key Factors Driving Cultural Divergence

• Geographic Isolation - physical barriers (mountains/oceans/deserts)

• Social/Political Separation - strong nationalist movements or political division (North/South Korea)

• Cultural Resistance/Revival - efforts to preserve traditional customs and practices in the face of globalization

Ethnic Religion

Religion closely identified with a specific ethnic group or culture and is generally not actively seeking converts outside of that group - typically in clustered geographic distribution

Key Characteristics

• Tied to Ethnicity/Culture

• Limited Diffusion - primarily relocation diffusion

• Cultural Landscape - heavily influenced by sacred sights

Multiculturalism

A set of policies that promote the active participation and inclusion of minority groups in national histories, national politics, and cultural institutions with the goal of embracing difference with society

Presence and active support of multiple, distinct cultural groups coexisting within a single society (cultural pluralism)

Examples of Multiculturalism

• Ethnic Enclaves/Neighborhoods

• Bilingual or Multilingual Signage

• Diverse Architecture

• Diverse Cuisine (restaurants and grocery stores)

Syncretism

Blending of two or more cultural traits, beliefs, or practices to form a new, unique cultural expression or system

Key Characteristics

• Blending/Fusion - creation of something NEW from existing parts

• Combines elements of distinct traditions

• Often occurs in areas of cultural contact and exchange

Time-Space Convergence (Time-Space Compression)

Refers to the reduction in the time it takes to travel between two places due to innovations in transportation and communication technologies

Key Characteristics

• Transportation - physically reduces travel time 

• Communication - improves access to information and connections almost immediately

Toponym

Name given to a specific place or geographic feature

Key Characteristics

• Migration and Origin - names related to homeland of settlers

• Historical Events/Values - important people, historical events, or values associated with the location

• Physical Features - natural environment

• Linguistic Heritage - names reveal dominant or previous languages spoken in the area

Break-Of-Bulk Point

Location where transfer is possible from one mode of transportation to another (Seaports, airports, rail terminals, oil refineries)

Key Characteristics

• Facilitates efficient movement of goods from a large-capacity, long-distance carrier to smaller, local carriers

• Necessity for Transfer - different transportation nodes have distinct capacities and physical requirements and often need to be moved from one container/vehicle to another

• Cost and Efficiency - reducing overall transportation costs and improving logistical efficiency due to strategic location

• Location - typically at waterfronts or major intermodal freight terminals and railways junctions

Commodity Dependence

Country's over-reliance on the export of primary commodities (raw materials) for the majority of its export earnings (commodities constitute 60% or more of its total merchandise exports in value)

Mostly occurs in Less Developed Countries (LDCs) and are usually agricultural products, oil, or mineral exports

Implications for Development

• Vulnerability to Price Volatility - demand and price fluctuate

• Limited Economic Diversification - neglect other economic sectors

• Unequal Terms of Trade - export low-value, unprocessed goods, but import high-value, manufactured goods

Ecotourism

Tourism based in natural environments—often environments that are threatened by looming industrialization or development—that frequently helps to protect the environment in question while also providing jobs for the local population

Core Principles of Ecotourism

• Environmental Conservation - preserve natural areas and biodiversity

• Sustaining Local Communities - direct economic benefits to local population - creates jobs and maintains local culture

• Education and interpretation - educate the importance of conservation and the local ecosystem

Formal Sector of the Economy

- Refers to the legal, regulated, and taxed part of a country's economic system

- Businesses, enterprises, and other economic activities that have government supervision, monitoring, and protection, and are also taxed

Characteristic	Description
Regulation & Legality	Officially registered with the government and operates within established laws, rules, and regulations (e.g., zoning, environmental standards).
Taxation	Businesses and workers report income and pay taxes (income tax, corporate tax, sales tax) to the government.
Labor Standards	Jobs are characterized by formal employment contracts, fixed working hours, and compliance with labor laws (e.g., minimum wage, safety standards).
Benefits & Security	Employees usually receive job security and social security benefits like health insurance, retirement plans, and paid leave.
Economic Measurement	Its output is included in official economic calculations such as Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and Gross National Income (GNI).

Gender Inequality Index (GII)

Composite measure developed by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) to quantify the loss of achievement within a country due to gender inequality

Takes into account factors such as reproductive health, empowerment, and labor market participation to assess gender disparities in a society.

Three Dimensions and Five Indicators

• Reproductive Health - Maternal Mortality Ratio and Adolescent Birth Rate

• Empowerment - Share of Parliamentary Seats Held by Women and Secondary and Higher Education Attainment

• Labor Market - Labor Force Participation Rate

Human Development Index (HDI)

- Statistical measure of human achievement that combines data on life expectancy at birth, education levels, and GNI per capita (PPP) population

- Indicator of level of development for each country combining three factors (economic, social, and demographic)

Dimension	Indicator	Represents
1. A Long and Healthy Life 🏥	Life Expectancy at Birth	Health and longevity of the population.
2. Access to Knowledge 📚	Expected Years of Schooling (for children) and Mean Years of Schooling (for adults aged 25+)	Educational attainment and opportunities.
3. A Decent Standard of Living 💵	Gross National Income (GNI) per Capita (adjusted for Purchasing Power Parity or PPP)	Economic resources and standard of living.

Informal Sector of the Economy

Refers to economic activities that are not regulated or protected by the government. These activities are typically untaxed, unmonitored, and not included in a country's official economic statistics, like Gross Domestic Product (GDP) or Gross National Income (GNI)- Any part of a country's economy that is outside of government monitoring or regulation

Characteristic	Description
Regulation & Taxation	Unregulated by government agencies; businesses and workers do not pay taxes (or pay very few).
Employment Security	Jobs lack formal contracts, job security, benefits (like health insurance or pensions), and legal protection.
Scale of Operation	Usually involves small-scale, family-owned, or individual enterprises with low capital investment and low barriers to entry.
Economic Measurement	Not included in official government statistics like GDP or GNI, leading to the underestimation of a country's true economic activity.
Examples of Work	Street vending, roadside food stands, unauthorized taxi services, casual construction labor, shoe shining, and unauthorized waste picking.

Literacy Rate

Key social indicator of development in AP Human Geography. It is defined as the percentage of a population (usually aged 15 and older) who can read and write a short, simple statement about their everyday life

• More Developed Countries (MDCs): Generally have literacy rates approaching 99-100%. This reflects high investment in universal and compulsory education

• Less Developed Countries (LDCs): Tend to have lower literacy rates, often due to factors like poverty, conflict, limited infrastructure, and a lack of resources dedicated to education

Primary Economic Sector

- Direct extraction or harvesting of natural resources from the earth - source of raw materials for all other sectors of the economy

• Example of Activities  - Agriculture, mining, fishing/aquaculture, forestry/logging, quarrying, hunting and gathering

• Role in Economic Development

  • LDCs (periphery) - Large portion of the economy and employs high percentage of the workforce

  • MDCs - Lower percentage of workforce as tech/mech improves

Agglomeration

Occur when firms cluster spatially in order to take advantage of geographic concentrations of skilled labor and industry suppliers, specialized infrastructure, and ease of face-to-face contact with industry participants

Location Economies - shared resources, knowledge spillovers, reduced transportation costs

Urbanization Economies - large consumer market, shared infrastructure, diverse labor pool

Ex. - High technology (Silicon Valley), Music recording (Nashville), Movie/television (Hollywood/Los Angeles), Auto alley (I-65/I-75 corridor)

Comparative Advantage

A country’s ability to produce one product much more efficiently that it can produce other products within its economy

The competitive edge (in the form of lower production costs, cheaper raw materials, etc.) enjoyed by one location over another

Ex. Middle East (Saudi Arabia, Qatar, Kuwait, UAE) - oil, China/India - cheap labor

Complementarity

Condition that exists when one place has a surplus of a resource or product that is demanded by another place (a deficit). Without this mutual need, there is no economic rationale for movement or trade

When two regions specifically satisfy each other’s needs through exchange of raw materials and/or finished goods

Ex. Saudi Arabia trades oil to U.S. in exchange for transportation equipment and machinery

Economies of Scale

Refers to the cost advantages that a business obtains due to an increase in the size of its output (production). Essentially, as production volume goes up, the average cost per unit of output goes down

Ex. - Automobile manufacturing, global food products (Pepsi, Coca Cola, McDonalds)

Growth Pole

Geographically pinpointed center of economic activity organized around a designated industry, commonly in the high-tech sector

Geographically concentrated area where significant economic development is deliberately fostered, often through targeted investment in key industries, infrastructure, and technology, which then acts as a catalyst for economic growth in surrounding regions

Ex. Silicon Valley, California; Research Triangle, North Carolina, Dubai, United Arab Emirates

International Division of Labor

Global distribution of economic activities where different countries specialize in producing specific goods and services based on their comparative advantages

Spatial shift of manufacturing from developed countries (MDC) to developing countries (LDC), including the global scaling of labor markets and industrial sites mainly due to cheaper labor costs

Core - tertiary, semi-periphery - secondary, periphery - primary

Just-In-Time Delivery

Manufacturing and logistics strategy where companies receive raw materials, components, or parts from their suppliers only as they are needed in the production process, and not before

Reduces warehousing costs while shortening delivery times between suppliers and manufacturers

Ex. Motor vehicles, food production

Outsourcing

Practice of hiring a third party to complete a company’s work, often in another country - done to cut cost, improve services, or to concentrate on core businesses

Process where a company contracts an external firm to perform a specific business function or service that was previously done internally

Global Drivers of Outsourcing

• Labor cost reduction, access to expertise, advances in technology, and neoliberal policies

Ex. Automobile manufacturing/auto parts, Company/call center

Special Economic Zones (SEZ)

Designated area within a country's national borders where the business and trade laws are different (more favorable) from the rest of the country - primary purpose of an SEZ is to attract foreign direct investment (FDI) and promote exports and rapid economic growth

Key Characteristics

• Unique Regulations: SEZs operate under liberalized economic regulations

• Incentives: Businesses in SEZs are often offered various incentives, including:

  • Tax breaks or tax holidays (reduced or zero corporate taxes for a period)

  • Reduced tariffs on imported materials and parts.

  • Streamlined regulations and simplified customs procedures

  • Less stringent labor or environmental laws (which can be a point of criticism)

• Infrastructure: SEZs typically boast improved infrastructure, such as modern ports, specialized utilities, and transportation networks

• Geographically Limited: They are geographically defined, often fenced-in, and managed by a single administrative body

Tariff

A tax or duty that a country imposes on imported goods or services and are a key concept when studying economic development, globalization, and international trade because they are a form of protectionism that influences the location of production and the flow of global supply chains

Main Goals of Tariffs

• Protecting Domestic Industries: By making imported goods more expensive, tariffs reduce the competitive advantage of foreign firms, encouraging domestic consumers to buy local products

• Generating Government Revenue: Like any tax, tariffs provide a source of income for the imposing government

• National Security: Governments may impose tariffs on certain goods to ensure domestic production of items critical for national defense or public health

• Political Leverage/Retaliation: Tariffs can be used as a bargaining chip in trade negotiations or as a retaliatory measure against a country that has allegedly engaged in unfair trade practices