Organisation

Cells

Cells

The basic building blocks of all living organisms.

Tissue

A group of cells with a similar structure and function.

Organs

Aggregations of tissues performing specific functions.

Organ System

Where organs are organized and work together to form organisms.

Digestive System

Involves several organs that work together to digest and absorb food.

Glands (salivary glands and pancreas)

Produce digestive juices that contain enzymes to break down food.

Stomach

Provides the optimum pH for protease enzymes to work and produces hydrochloric acid to kill bacteria.

Small Intestine

An organ where soluble molecules are absorbed into the blood.

Liver

Produces bile stored in the gallbladder that helps digestion of lipids.

Large Intestine

Absorbs water from undigested food to produce faeces or waste, which passes out of the body through the rectum and anus.

Enzymes

A biological catalyst and is almost always a protein, that speeds up the rate of a specific chemical reaction in the cell.

Lock and Key Theory

A model for enzyme-substrate interaction suggesting that the enzyme and the substrate possess specific complementary geometric shapes that fit exactly into one another.

Digestive Enzymes

Converts food into small soluble molecules that can be absorbed into the bloodstream.

Three (3) Important Digestive Enzyme

Amylase, Proteases, and Lipases

Amylase

Produced in salivary glands and pancreas; It digests starch into smaller molecules, yielding maltose, which is cleaved into two glucose molecules by maltase

Proteases

Produced in the pancreas and stomach; These are enzymes that break down protein into amino acids.

Lipases

Produced in the pancreas; It break down fats into glycerol and fatty acids so they can be absorbed in the intestines.

Bile

A fluid that is made and released by the liver and stored in the gallbladder.

Heart

An organ that pumps blood around the body in a double-circulatory system.

Heart Chambers

Atria (Upper Chambers) and Ventricles (Lower Chambers)

Left Atrium

It receives oxygenated blood from the lungs through the four pulmonary veins.

Right Atrium

It receives deoxygenated blood from the body through the superior and inferior vena cava.

Left Ventricle

Pumps oxygenated blood to the body through the aorta.

Right Ventricle

Pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs through the pulmonary arteries.

Heart Valves

Atrioventricular Valves and Semilunar Valves

Tricuspid Valves

These are valves located between the right atrium and right ventricle.

Bicuspid or Mitral Valves

These are valves located between the left atrium and left ventricle.

Pulmonary Valve

It guards the entrance to the pulmonary artery from the right ventricle.

Aortic Valve

It guards the entrance to the aorta from the left ventricle.

Blood Vessels (connected to the Heart)

Aorta, Pulmonary Artery, and Superior and Inferior Vena Cava

Aorta

The largest artery that carries oxygenated blood from the left ventricle to the systemic circulation.

Pulmonary Artery

It is an artery that carries deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the lungs for oxygenation.

Superior and Inferior Vena Cava

These are veins that bring deoxygenated blood from the body to the right atrium.

Coronary Arteries

It supplies the heart muscle (myocardium) with oxygen and nutrients.

Coronary Veins

It collects deoxygenated blood from the myocardium and returns it to the right atrium.

Trachea

A stiff and flexible tube, reliable for carrying air in and out of your body.

Intercostal Muscles

These are muscles that pull down on the rib cage and thereby push air out of the lungs.

Ribs

Supports and protects vital organs within the thoracic region, such as the heart and lungs, and contribute to the overall structural integrity of the chest.

Right and Left Bronchus

An extension of the trachea and serves as the central passageway into the lungs.

Bronchioles

Carries air to small sacs in your lungs called alveoli, where the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide takes place.

Air Sacs (Alveoli)

Exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide during the process of breathing in and breathing out.

Diaphragm

A muscle that helps you inhale and exhale (breathe in and out).

Types of Blood Vessels

Arteries, Capillary, and Veins

Arteries

Blood vessels that bring oxygen-rich blood from your heart to all of your body's cells.

Capillary

Delicate blood vessels that transport blood, nutrients, and oxygen to cells in organs and body systems.

Veins

Blood vessels located throughout your body that collect oxygen-poor blood and return it to your heart.

Pulse Rate

Measure by counting the number of beats in a set time (30 seconds, or a minute).

Cardiac Output

It is the volume of blood pumped by the heart per minute.

Stroke volume

The volume of blood pumped out of the heart per beat.

Blood

Fluid that transports oxygen and nutrients to cells and carries away carbon dioxide and other waste products.

Main Components of Blood

Plasma, Red Blood Cells, White Blood Cells, and Platelets

Plasma

Redistributes water to where your body needs it, delivers hormones, nutrients and proteins to parts of your body, and helps to exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide.

Red Blood Cells

Carries oxygen from the lungs and deliver it throughout our body.

White Blood Cells

Helps the body fight infection and other diseases.

Platelets

Prevents and stops bleeding.

Coronary Heart Disease

A type of heart disease where the arteries of the heart cannot deliver enough oxygen-rich blood to the heart.

Stents

Used to keep the coronary arteries open.

Statins

Widely used to reduce blood cholesterol levels which slows down the rate of fatty material deposits.

Health

The state of physical and mental well-being.

Disease

Any harmful deviation from the normal structural or functional state of an organism, generally associated with certain signs and symptoms and differing in nature from physical injury.

Types Of Diseases

Communicable and Non-communicable

Communicable

Illnesses that spread from one person to another, from an animal to a person, or from a surface or food.

Non-communicable

Diseases that are not spread through infection or other people but are typically caused by unhealthy behaviours.

Lifestyle Factors on NCDs

Poor diet, excessive alcohol consumption, and smoking contribute to the incidence of NCDs at local, national, and global levels.

Cancer

The changes in cells that leads to uncontrolled growth and division.

Benign Tumours (non-cancerous)

Growth of abnormal cells which are contained in one area, usually within a membrane.

Malignant Tumours (cancerous)

Cancerous and can spread cancer cells throughout one's body through the blood or lymphatic system.

Plant Tissues

Various plant tissues like cuticle, xylem, phloem, and stomata have specific functions in water transport, photosynthesis, and gas exchange.

Cuticle

The outermost layer of the plant that interacts with the environment.

Epidermal tissues

A protective tissue that covers the entire surface of the plant.

Palisade mesophyll

A layer where most of the photosynthesis occurs in the leaf.

Bundle Sheath Cell

A leaf cell type that forms a tightly packed layer surrounding the veins.

Spongy mesophyll

A complex, porous tissue found in plant leaves that enables carbon capture and provides mechanical stability.

Guard Cells

Pairs of epidermal cells that control gas diffusion by regulating the opening and closure of stomatal pores.

Stoma

Pores on the surface of the aerial parts of most higher plants.

Plant Organ System

Root hair cells, xylem, and phloem play crucial roles in water uptake, nutrient transport, and sugar distribution within plants.

Root Hair Cells

Adapted for the efficient uptake of water by osmosis, and mineral ions by active transport.

Xylem Cells

Transports water and mineral ions from the roots to the stems and leaves.

Phloem Cells

Transports dissolved sugars from the leaves to the rest of the plant for immediate use or storage.

Transpiration

Process of water movement through plants, influenced by temperature, humidity, air movement, and light intensity, aiding in cooling and nutrient transport.

Transpiration Rate Formula

weight of H2O lost by transpiration (kg) ÷ weight of dry material produced = transpiration rate

Translocation

Movement of sugars in plants from leaves to other parts through phloem vessels, powered by osmotic pressure gradients and supporting plant growth and energy storage.