Murray's final exam

Corinne T. Field — “Why Little Thinkers Are a Big Deal”

Field argues that ideas about children’s intelligence have long shaped who gets treated as fully human in America. She shows how adults used “childishness” to justify denying rights to women and people of colour. Her work reveals that debates about childhood thinking were really debates about equality. This fits into American childhood by showing that ideas about kids affect how the whole society treats people.

Joshua Coleman — “Therapy and the Curated Childhood”

Coleman explains how modern American parents try to manage every detail of their children’s lives. This creates a version of childhood focused on emotional surveillance rather than freedom. He shows how youth today grow up with pressure to always act “healthy” and “well-adjusted.” His argument fits into American childhood because it shows how parenting culture shapes what childhood looks like in the 21st century.

Arithmetical Prodigies in the Early Republic-

Early America celebrated child math geniuses as symbols of the young nation’s potential. Children became tools for proving that America was smart, modern, and exceptional. These prodigies were displayed publicly, showing how childhood could serve national identity. Their stories show how early U.S. childhood was tied to ideas of progress and national pride.

Olaudah Equiano-

Equiano’s account describes the kidnapping, terror, and loss he experienced as an enslaved child. His narrative allows us to see slavery specifically from a child’s point of view. It shows how African children were forced into adulthood through violence and survival. He fits into American childhood because he exposes how the U.S. was built partly on stolen and destroyed childhoods.

19th-Century Post-Mortem Photography and Children

Families in the 1800s photographed children after death because child mortality was high and photography was rare. These images show how sentimental and emotional American childhood had become. They reveal that children were seen as precious and innocent. This practice helps us understand how Americans used photography to cope with grief and define childhood.

Black Dolls Exhibit — New York Historical Society

The exhibit showed that Black children often lacked toys that respectfully represented them. Black-made dolls allowed children to see themselves as beautiful and human. The exhibit reveals how racism shaped children’s play and imagination. It fits into American childhood by demonstrating that toys play a major role in identity and belonging.

Nicholas Syrett — American Child Bride-

Syrett argues that child marriage was once widely accepted in American communities. This shows that childhood was not always seen as a protected, innocent stage of life. Over time, Americans developed stronger boundaries between childhood and adulthood, making child marriage scandalous. His work shows how ideas of youth are not fixed but historically changing.

Lowell Mill Girls

Many teenage girls worked in the textile mills of the 19th century. Their labour shows how industrial America relied on youth workers. Yet these girls also formed one of the first youth-led labour movements, demanding better conditions. They fit into American childhood by showing that young women helped build the nation’s economy and political activism.

Harriet Jacobs — Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl-

Jacobs describes the sexual abuse, fear, and exploitation she faced from childhood. Her story shows how enslaved girls were denied any form of childhood innocence. She also shows how motherhood and family were attacked under slavery. This fits into American childhood by revealing gendered suffering and resistance among enslaved youth.

Frederick Douglass — Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass

Douglass recalls being separated from his mother, denied education, and forced into harsh labour as a child. His childhood experiences show how slavery deliberately crushed youth identity and freedom. He uses his childhood memories to critique a society that claimed to value liberty. Douglass fits into American childhood as an example of youth shaped by systemic violence.

Zitkala-Sa — “Impressions of an Indian Childhood”

Zitkala-Sa describes a warm Indigenous childhood disrupted by boarding school removal. Her story shows how U.S. policies targeted Native children to erase their culture. Childhood becomes a site of colonial control. She fits into American childhood by highlighting how government assimilation programs reshaped Native youth identity.

W.E.B. DuBois on Black Children (via Webster)

DuBois believed Black children carried the “double burden” of growing up while facing racism. He argued parents had to prepare their kids for a world that denied their innocence. His perspective shows how racial inequality affects childhood experiences. He fits into American childhood by emphasizing racialized parenting and survival strategies.

1919 Cleveland Protestant Orphan Asylum Annual Report

The report shows how institutions took responsibility for raising orphaned or poor children. It presents childhood as something that can be “fixed” through discipline, morality, and Christian values. This reveals how adults used institutions to shape youth into “ideal citizens.” It fits into American childhood by showing how class and morality shaped social services for kids.

“Kissing Rudy Valentino” — 1920s Moviegoing

The teenage girl’s account shows how movies gave youth new forms of entertainment and independence. Going to the movies became a social and romantic ritual. Adults worried this new freedom would corrupt teens. This fits into American childhood by showing how youth culture grew through mass media.

“Jingle Bells, Batman Smells” — Children’s Folksong

This silly parody shows how kids adapt adult culture into their own playful worlds. Children use songs to challenge rules and express humor. It proves that childhood is creative, not passive. The song fits into American childhood by showing how kids build their own culture.

Polio Epidemic and American Children

Polio reshaped everyday life for American kids, limiting play and school attendance. Many children suffered long-term disabilities or hospitalization. Families and communities reorganized childhood around fear of disease. Polio fits into American childhood by showing how health crises redefine what it means to grow up.

“Babysitter and the Man Upstairs” (Urban Legend)

This story reflects adult anxieties about teenage girls gaining independence through babysitting. It warns of danger in a world where youth are trusted with responsibility. Kids also retell the story as a form of thrill and bonding. It fits into American childhood as an example of how fear and folklore shape youth imagination.

May K. Sasaki — Japanese American Incarceration (Oral History)

Sasaki remembers the confusion and loss she experienced as a child in the camps. Her account shows how incarceration targeted families and disrupted normal childhood. It reveals how children experience racism differently than adults. She fits into American childhood by documenting how war and prejudice reshape kids’ lives.

Kamala, the “Wolf Girl of Midnapore”

Her story was used by Western scientists to explore ideas about what makes someone “human” or “civilized.” Americans projected theories about childhood development onto her. She became an object of curiosity rather than a real child. She fits into American childhood because her case shows how adults use “wild children” to define what a “normal” child should be.

Radiation Experiments at Fernald State School (1950s)

Disabled and poor children at Fernald were used in unethical medical experiments. They were denied informed consent and treated as disposable. This reflects how society devalued certain children’s lives. The case fits into American childhood by showing how institutions held extreme power over marginalized youth.

Robbers Cave Experiment (1954)

Researchers manipulated boys at a summer camp to study conflict. The experiment shows how easily children can be pushed into rivalry and violence. It also shows how shared goals can heal divisions. This fits into American childhood by revealing how adults use children to test theories about behavior and society.

George Kennan — “Rebels Without a Program” (1968)

Kennan criticized 1960s teens for being rebellious and disrespectful. His argument reflects adult fears about losing control over youth culture. It also shows how older generations misinterpret youth activism. This fits into American childhood by illustrating generational conflict and adult anxieties.

Tinker v. Des Moines (1969)

This Supreme Court case recognized students’ First Amendment rights. It proved that children and teens can participate in political life. The ruling redefined youth as rights-bearing citizens rather than passive minors. It fits into American childhood by marking a shift toward youth political agency.

Tinker v. Des Moines (1969)

This Supreme Court case recognized students’ First Amendment rights. It proved that children and teens can participate in political life. The ruling redefined youth as rights-bearing citizens rather than passive minors. It fits into American childhood by marking a shift toward youth political agency.

Chicano Rights Movement, Los Angeles (1968)

Chicano students organized school walkouts to protest discrimination and underfunded schools. These protests show how youth can lead major political movements. The students challenged adult authority and demanded respect. They fit into American childhood as an example of activism shaping education.

Frederick Wiseman’s High School (1968)

The film exposes the strict rules and social pressures inside American schools. It shows how schools try to shape obedient, disciplined youth. Students push back subtly against these expectations. The documentary fits into American childhood by showing schools as central spaces where youth identity is formed.

Curing the “Pre-Homosexual” (Abate)

Experts once believed that children could show early signs of homosexuality that needed to be “corrected.” This reflects mid-century anxieties about gender roles and proper childhood development. Children were watched closely for behaviours that adults considered dangerous. It fits into American childhood by showing how sexuality and identity were policed from a young age.

Sanders & Lawson — Trayvon Martin and African American Parenting

The authors show how Black parents must teach their children to be cautious, polite, and hyper-aware to survive racism. This creates a childhood shaped by fear and preparation for injustice. Trayvon Martin’s case shows that Black youth are not granted the same innocence as white youth. This fits into American childhood by highlighting racial inequality in how children are treated and protected.