AP US Gov & Pol Princeton Review Glossary

adversarial system

System of law in which the court is seen as a neutral area where disputants can argue their cases

affirmative action

Government programs that create special employment opportunities for African Americans, women, and minorities

amendment

Addition to the Constitution; requires approval by 2/3rds of both houses of Congress and 3/4ths of the states

appellate jurisdiction

Courts whose role is to hear appeals from lower courts

Bill of Rights

First 10 amendments to the U.S. Constitution; guarantees personal liberties and limits the powers of the government

blanket primary

Primary election in which voters may select a candidate from any party for each office; use the same procedure as general elections

block grants

Federal money given to states with only general guidelines for its use; the states have the authority to decide how the money will be spent

amicus curiae briefs

"Friend of the court" briefs that individuals or organizations file in lawsuits to which they are not a party, so the judge may consider their advice

Articles of Confederation

The United States' first constitution; the government formed by this document lasted from 1781-1789; the government was inadequate because it did not have the power to collect taxes from states, regulate foreign trade to generate revenue from import and export tariffs

bicameral legislature

Consisting of two legislative houses; the United States has this type of legislature

bread-and-butter issues

Those political issues that are specifically directed at the daily concerns of most working-class Americans, such as job security, tax rates, wages, and employee benefits

broad constructionism

Belief that the Constitution should be interpreted loosely when concerning the restrictions it places on federal power; emphasizes the importance of the elastic clause

Brown v. Board of Education

The 1954 case in which the Supreme Court overturned the "separate but equal" standard as it applied to education; the court ruled that "separate educational facilities are inherently unequal

budget deficit

Condition that arises when federal expenditures exceed revenues; in other words, when the government spends more money than it takes in

categorical grants

Federal aid given to states with strings attached; to receive the money, the states must agree to adhere to federally mandated guidelines for spending it

caucus

Meeting of local party members for the purpose of choosing delegates to a national party convention

census

The process by which the population of the United States is officially counted every 10 years; data is then used to help distribute federal money and to reapportion congressional districts.

checks and balances

The system that prevents any branch of government from becoming too powerful by requiring the approval of more than one branch for all important acts

civil court

Court in which lawsuits are heard; in contrast, criminal cases are heard in criminal court

civil disobedience

The nonviolent version requires activists to protest peacefully against laws they believe unjust and to be willing to accept arrest as a means of demonstrating the justice of their cause; the notion was popularized by Thoreau and was practiced by MLK

civil liberties

Those protections against government power embodied in the Bill of Rights and similar legislation; they include the right to free speech, free exercise of religion, and right to a fair trial

civil rights

Those protections against discrimination by the government and individuals; they are intended to prevent discrimination based on race, religion, gender, ethnicity, physical handicap, or sexual orientation

Civil Rights Act of 1964

Federal law that made segregation illegal in most public places, increased penalties and sentences for those convicted of discrimination in employment, and withheld federal aid from schools that discriminated on the basis of race or gender

civil service system

Method of hiring federal employees based on merit rather than on political beliefs or allegiances; replaced the spoils system in the United States

class action suit

A lawsuit filed on behalf of a group of people, and whose result affects that group of people as a whole; interest groups such as the NAACP often use these as a means of asserting their influence over policy decisions

clear and present danger test

Interpretation by Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes regarding limits on free speech if it presents _____ to the public or leads to illegal actions; for example, one cannot shout "Fire!" in a crowded theater

closed primary

Primary election in which voting is restricted to registered members of a political party

cloture

A motion in the senate to end debate, often used in the event of a filibuster; this vote requires a 3/5ths majority of the Senate

coalition

A combination of groups of people who work together to achieve a political goal; the group on which the Democratic Party rests, for example, is made up of Northern urban dwellers, Jews, African Americans, and labor unions; these also form among legislators who work together to advance or defeat a particular bill

commander in chief

The president's role as leader of all United States military forces; this is one of the executive powers authorized in the Constitution

concurrent powers

Constitutional powers shared by the federal and state governments

conference committee

Congressional committee that includes representatives of both houses of Congress; their purpose is to settle differences between the House and Senate versions of bills that have been passed by their respective legislatures

Congressional Budget Office

Congressional agency of budget experts who assess the feasibility of the president's plan and who help create Congress's version of the federal budget

congressional district

The geographically defined group of people on whose behalf a representative acts in the House of Representatives; each state is divided into these blocks of equal population, with larger states having more districts and representatives than small states

conservative

A political ideology that tends to favor defense spending and school prayer and to disapprove of social programs, abortion, affirmative action, and a large, active government; those that identify this way are generally affiliated with the Republican party

constitutional convention

An as-of-yet untried method by which the Constitution may be amended; to call this meeting, 2/3rds of all state legislatures must petition the federal government; not to be confused with the meeting when the Constitution was written, with which it shares a name

cooperative federalism

Preeminent form of U.S. federalism since the passage of the Fourteenth Amendment; the Fourteenth Amendment initiated the long demise of dual federalism by providing the national government the means to enforce the rights of citizens against state infringement; the Progressive Era, the New Deal, and the Great Society all increased federal involvement in state government; the result is a system by this name in which the national and state governments share many powers

criminal court

Court in which criminal trials are heard; in contrast, lawsuits are heard in civil court

dealignment

A recent trend in which voters act increasingly independent of a party affiliation; this is partially the result of television because candidates can appeal directly to the electorate without relying on their party; one consequence is split-ticket voting, which leads to a divided government

delegated powers

Constitutional powers granted solely to the federal government

direct democracy

Form of government in which all enfranchised citizens vote on all matters of government; in contrast, in a representative democracy, voters choose representatives to vote for them on most government issues

divided government

A government in which the presidency is controlled by one party and Congress is controlled by the other; this has become a common occurrence in recent decades as voters have begun to act more independent of parties and increasingly vote split tickets

double jeopardy

The act of trying an individual a second time after he has been acquitted on the same charges; prohibited by the Constitution

dual federalism

Form of U.S. federalism during the nation's early history; during this period, the federal and state governments remained separate and independent; what little contact most Americans had with government occurred on the state level, as the national government concerned itself primarily with international trade construction of roads, harbors, and railways, and the distribution of public land in the West

due process

Established legal procedures for the arrest and trial of an accused criminal

earmark

A provision within legislation that appropriates money to a specific project, usually to benefit a small number of individuals or a region

elastic clause

The section of the Constitution that allows Congress to pass laws "necessary and proper" to the performance of its duties; it is called this because it allows Congress to stretch its powers beyond those that are specifically granted to it (enumerated) by the Constitution

electoral college

Constitutionally established body created for the sole purpose of choosing the president and vice president; during general elections, voters choose a presidential ticket; the winner in each state usually receives all of that state's electoral votes from this group; a majority of electoral votes is required for victory in this body; if such a majority cannot be reached, the election result is determined by the House of Representatives

eminent domain

The power of the government to take away property for public use as long as there is just compensation for property taken

entitlement programs

Social insurance programs that allocate federal funds to all people who meet the conditions of the program; Social Security is the larges and most expensive example; because they are a form of mandatory spending, it is incredibly difficult to cut funds to these programs during the budgetary process

Equal Rights Amendment

Failed constitutional amendment that would have guaranteed equal protection under the law for women (1970s)

establishment clause

Section of the Constitution that prohibits the government from designating one faith as the official religion of the United States

ex post facto laws

If allowed, these laws would punish people for actions that occurred before such actions were made criminal

exclusionary rule

Rule that prohibits the use of illegally obtained evidence at trial; The Supreme Court has created several exceptions to this rule, notably the objective good faith rule and the inevitable discovery rule

executive agreements

Presidential agreements made with foreign nations; have the same legal force as treaties but do not require the approval of the Senate

executive privilege

The right of the president to withhold information when doing so would compromise national security

extradition

Process by which governments return fugitives to the jurisdiction from which they have fled

Federal Reserve Board

Executive agency that is responsible for the formulation and implementation of monetary policy; by controlling the monetary supply, this group helps to maintain a stable economy

federalism

System under which the national government and local governments share powers

The Federalist Papers

A series of essays written by Madison, Hamilton, and Jay to defend the Constitution and persuade Americans that it should be ratified

Fifteenth Amendment (1870)

Prohibited states from denying voting rights to African Americans

filibuster

A lengthy speech that halts all legislative action in the Senate; not possible in the House of Representatives because strict time limits govern all debates there

First Amendment

Protects the rights of individuals against the government by guaranteeing the freedom of speech, the press, religion, and assembly

Fourteenth Amendment (1868)

Prevented the states from denying "due process of law" and "equal protection under the law" to citizens; this amendment was specifically aimed at protecting the rights of newly freed slaves; in the twentieth century, the Supreme Court used the amendment to strike down state laws that violate the Bill of Rights

Freedom of Information Act (1974)

Act that declassified government documents for public use

front-loading

Because early primaries have grown increasingly important in recent years, many states have pushed forward the date of their primary elections; political analysts refer to this strategy as _______

full faith and credit clause

Section of the Constitution that requires states to honor one another's licenses, marriages, and other acts of state courts

general election

Election held on the Tuesday after the first Monday of November, during which voters elect officials

gerrymandering

The practice of drawing congressional district lines to benefit one party over the other

Gideon v. Wainwright (1963)

Supreme Court case in which the Court ruled that a defendant in a felony trial must be provided a lawyer free of charge if the defendant cannot afford one

Gramm-Rudman-Holings Bill (1985)

Set budget reduction targets to balance budget but failed to eliminate loopholes

Great Compromise

Settlement reached at the Constitutional Convention between large states and small states; this called for two legislative houses: one in which states were represented by their populations and one in which states received equal representation

Virginia Plan: strong national government with a bicameral legislature where representation was based on population size, favored larger states.

New Jersey Plan: unicameral legislature with equal representation for each state, regardless of size, favored smaller states.

Great Society

President Lyndon B. Johnson's social/economic program, aimed at raising the standard of living for America's poorest residents; among the programs encompassed are Medicare, Medicaid, Project Head Start, Job Corps, and Volunteers in Service to America (VISTA)

Griswold v. Connecticut (1965)

Supreme Court decision in which the Court ruled that the Constitution implicitly guarantees citizens' right to privacy

Hatch Act (1939)

A law that forbade government officials from participating in partisan politics and protected government employees from being fired on partisan grounds

House of Representatives

Lower house of U.S. Congress, in which representation is allocated to states in direct proportion to their population; has sole power to initiate appropriations legislation

House Rules Committee

Determines the rules for debate of each bill, including whether the bill may be amended; most powerful committee in the House; the Senate, which is smaller, has no rules for debate

impeachment

Process by which a president, judge, or other government official can be tried for high crimes and misdemeanors; Andrew Johnson was _______ but not found guilty and was not removed from office

indictment

A written statement of criminal charges brought against a defendant; these guarantee that defendants know the charges against them so they can plan a defense

inevitable discovery

Exception to the exclusionary rule that allows the use of illegally obtained evidence at trial if court determines that the evidence would eventually have been found by legal means

initiative

Process through which voters may propose new laws; one of several Progressive Era reforms that increased voters' power over government

interest group

Political group organized around a particular political goal or philosophy; these attempt to influence public policy through political action and donations to candidates

iron triangle

Also called sub government; formed by the relationship among various interest groups, congressional committees, and executive agencies that enforce regulations; exert a powerful influence over legislation and law enforcement

Jim Crow laws

State and local laws passed in the post-Reconstruction Era South to enforce racial segregation and otherwise restrict the rights of African Americans

joint committee

Congressional committee composed of members of both houses of Congress, usually to investigate and research specific subjects

judicial activism

Term referring to the actions of a court that frequently strikes down or alters the acts of the executive and/or legislative branches

judicial restraint

Term referring to the actions of a court that demonstrates an unwillingness to break with precedent or to overturn legislature and executive acts

judicial review

The power of the Supreme Court to declare laws and executive action unconstitutional

Ku Klux Klan

Nativist hate group founded during the Reconstruction Era; this group terrorized African Americans throughout the south, especially those who attempted to exert their civil rights; also preaches hatred of Catholics and Jews

legislative oversight

One of Congress's most important tasks; in order to check the power of the executive branch, congressional committees investigate and evaluate the performance of corresponding executive agencies and departments

liberal

Descriptive of an ideology that tends to favor government spending on social programs, affirmative action, a woman's right to an abortion, and to disfavor defense spending and school prayer; generally affiliated with the Democratic Party

Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act (2009)

Law that closed the loophole that limited suits on discriminatory pay

limited government

Principle of government that states that government powers must be confined to those allowed it by the nation's Constitution

line-item veto

Power held by some chief executives (such as governors) to excise some portions of a spending bill without rejecting the entire bill

mandate

Level of support for an elected official as perceived through election results

Marbury v. Madison (1803)

Supreme Court decision that established the principle of judicial review; meaning the Supreme Court has the authority to interpret the Constitution and determine whether laws or actions by the government are constitutional.

John Marshall

Third Chief Justice of the Supreme Court; a Federalist who worked to increase the powers of the federal government over the states; established judicial review

Miranda v. Arizona (1966)

Supreme Court case in which the Court ruled that, upon arrest, a suspect must be advised of the right to remain silent and the right to consult with a lawyer

national convention

Occasion at which a political party officially announces its presidential nominee and reveals its party platform

National Organization for Women (NOW)

Feminist political group formed in 1967 to promote legislative change; lobbied for the failed Equal Rights Amendment to the Constitution