Topic 6 - dynamic development

what are megacities?

cities with a population of over 10 million people

what are characteristics of megacities?

• rapid growth

• high population density

• poverty

• crime

• social inequality

what are 5 factors that can cause cities to grow into megacities?

• natural population increase: cities usually have better healthcare → death rates drop, life expectancy increases

• migration from countryside/other countries to find jobs or a better life

• being a port city: coastal locations are an advantage for trade

• economic development: increased trade + business; → cities grow into centres for production → jobs created → people attracted

PUSH factors (why people may want to leave the countryside): lack of employment opportunities, poor crop yields, overpopulation

describe the distribution of megacities from 1950 until 2015

1950 - NY, Tokyo

1975 - São Paulo, Mexico City, NY, Shanghai

2015 - most megacities are found in Asia; at least 1 in every continent except Australia/Oceania

what are world cities?

global economic hubs for international trade

what are characteristics of world cities?

• HQs of multinational companies based in the city

• centres for innovation in business/media and communications

• broadcasting and technology

• major centre for manufacturing

• highly rated universities (often specialising in research)

• cultural opportunities

how do urban growth rates vary in parts of the world with contrasting levels of development?

urbanisation happened earlier in ACs → most of their population already live in urban areas

• ∴ ACs have very slow rates of urban growth (most desiring better quality of life move to rural areas)

currently, fastest rates of urbanisation are found in EDCs + LIDCs

what are ACs?

Countries which share a number of important economic development characteristics including well-developed financial markets, high degrees of financial intermediation and diversified economic structures with rapidly growing service sectors.

what are EDCs?

Countries which neither share all the economic development characteristics required to be advanced or are eligible for the Poverty Reduction and Growth Trust.

what are LIDCs?

Countries which are eligible for the Poverty Reduction and Growth Trust (PRGT) from the IMF.

what is urbanisation?

an increase in the percentage of people living in urban areas, compared to rural areas

what causes urbanisation? (in general)

• transport

• job opportunities (more + higher paid)

• better healthcare

• better education

what causes urbanisation in LIDCs specifically?

• rural-urban migration

• internal growth

what is rural-urban migration?

the movement of people from rural to urban areas

what are the push factors of rural-urban migration?

• bad healthcare + jobs

• little to no advanced education

• unstable access to food + water

• little to no public transport

• poor safety and security

• vulnerability to natural hazards

• crop failure

• war

what are the pull factors of rural-urban migration?

• better healthcare + education

• more job opportunities

• easier access to food + water

• more transport

• political security

• less risk of natural hazards

• lower crime rates

what is internal growth?

the growth of a population as a result of a higher birth rate than death rate

birth rate

the number of live babies born per 1000 people per year

death rate

the number of deaths per 1000 people per year

why might internal growth be so high in urban areas in LIDCs?

• lack of contraception

• children seen as social assets → families have more children in order to show status

• culture

what are the social consequences of rapid urban growth in LIDCs?

• lack of jobs → high levels of unemployment

• less people can access basic services → poor health

• not enough houses → many people end up in squatter settlements

• high levels of crime

• poor access to education → less people can develop important skills

what is an economic consequence of rapid urban growth in LIDCs?

more people will work in the informal sector, where jobs aren’t taxed or regulated

what are the environmental consequences of rapid urban growth in LIDCs?

• excess rubbish created → can damage the environment, especially if it’s toxic

• sewage can get into rivers → harms wildlife

what is suburbanisation?

the movement of people from the city centre to new residential areas (suburbs) on the edge of the city

what are the causes of suburbanisation?

• transport improvements in the suburbs

• high population density and congestion in city centres

• pollution from industry (and later, road traffic)

• cheaper land and house prices further from the city centre

• the idea that quality of life was better closer to the countryside

what are the consequences of suburbanisation?

• high costs/gentrification

• more pollution and congestion in suburban areas

what is counter-urbanisation?

the movement of people out of built-up areas and into the countryside

what are the causes of counter-urbanisation?

it’s caused when people moved out of cities altogether to the countryside or smaller towns:

• older people retired to the country/seaside

• younger people moved out of the city to raise families

what are the consequences of counter-urbanisation?

• UK cities go into decline, especially in inner areas

• population decrease in cities

• old urban areas are neglected and allowed to deteriorate

what is re-urbanisation?

the movement of people back into an urban area, after a period of population decrease

what are the causes of re-urbanisation?

caused by urban regeneration, which aims to:

• bring derelict land and buildings back into use

• build new homes

• encourage investment in new jobs

• improve the quality of life for local residents

• improve the quality of the environment

what are the consequences of re-urbanisation?

• people move back into cities → population of most UK cities increase

• some cities grow faster due to stronger economies/more jobs

what is urban sprawl and what impacts does it have?

the outward growth of cities towards the rural/urban fringe

• leads to extra costs for taxpayers, increased traffic, health issues, environmental issues, and impacts social lives

what is a brownfield site and what impacts does it have?

land that’s been used, abandoned and now waits use. commonly found across urban areas, particularly in the inner city

• developments may already have water and electricity supplies

• declined environmental health, developments often restricted in space, work needed to decontaminate sites

what is a greenfield site and what impacts does it have?

a plot of land, often in (the edge of) rural areas, that has not yet been subject to any building development.

• no clean-up costs, cheaper to build on, new developments not restricted in size

• removes open space → neg impact on wildlife + environment

what is a greenbelt and what impacts does it have?

open space around cities on which no further development is allowed

• preserves rural areas

• reduces amount of land available for building new homes → pressure to relax laws about green belts due to housing shortage

London - location + general importance

• capital of UK

• world city → financial hub

• Roman London originally built as a bridging point on the River Thames, where it developed its role as a port

• flat land gave the city room for expansion, with farmland beyond the borders

London - importance within the region

• UK’s capital and wealthiest city

• home of the UK government

• main hub for UK's transport network

• earnings + house prices risen faster in London - avg house price in London is £514k, compared to UK avg of £272k

London - importance within the country

• functions as a port; creates £4 billion per year (2015)

• motorways converge in London, such as the M1

London - importance within the wider world

• world city - HQs of many large international + British companies are based there, e.g. KPMG

• many foreign banks in London

• attracts investment + migrants

*patterns of national and international migration in London

how is migration changing the growth and character of London?

international migration has created multicultural communities living in London

different cultural groups are concentrated in specific areas of London:

• Caribbean community in Brixton

• SK community in New Malden

over time, these communities create businesses catering for the specific needs of that community e.g. shops selling certain foods

due to setting up buildings (e.g. religious institutions), areas can take on a specific ‘identity’ linked to different cultural groups

explore culture in London

• many big festivals celebrating different cultures/ethnic backgrounds e.g. annual Afro-Caribbean Notting Hill Carnival; Chinese New Year; Proms; Eid in the Square

explore ethnicity in London

• very high ethnic diversity - some areas e.g. Chinatown have a high proportion of people from one ethnic background

explore housing in London

• housing in richer areas (mainly west London + suburbs, e.g. Sutton) tends to be modern apartments or large houses with gardens

• in poorer areas (mainly the inner city + east London, e.g. Newham) housing density is higher and many buildings have been split to house multiple families

explore consumption in London

• London’s wealth means it consumes a huge amount of resources (food, water, energy, etc.)

• Londoners consume nearly 7 million tonnes of food every year, most of which is imported

explore leisure in London

any from the following:

• West End home to many theatres where top musicals and plays are regularly performed

• popular museums and art galleries e.g. British Museum and National Gallery

• centre for fashion e.g. London Fashion Week, one of the 4 biggest fashion events in the world

• many cinemas, restaurants, shopping areas, concert venues, clubs and pubs available

• many large parks in the city centre e.g. Hyde Park

• tourist attractions e.g. Tower of London; London Eye

• sports: world-class sports facilities hosted the Olympic Games in 2012; mass participation sporting events e.g. London Marathon

What are contemporary challenges that affect life in London?

• housing availability

• transport provision

• access to services

• inequality

investigate the challenges regarding housing availability in London

• Mayor of London’s office state 66,000 new homes are needed each year - recent new building is on average 20,000 per year (lack of housing)

• new homes built on greenfield/brownfield sites

investigate the challenges regarding transport provision in London

• ~3 million use the London underground train network every day, and millions more use buses

• with population increase, this’ll put transport networks (e.g. TfL) under considerable strain

investigate the challenges regarding pollution and waste in London

• air pollution from cars mean 2 million Londoners (including 400k children + 450 schools) live in areas of pollution above international pollution limits

• ¼ of London’s waste goes to landfill rather than being recycled

investigate the challenges regarding inequality in London

• social deprivation affects 2 million people (lack of decent services, housing, income or employment)

What has been one cycling-related initiative used in London to make it more sustainable?

Transport initiative: Cycling infrastructure

Advantages:

Socia	Economic	Environmental
takes strain off London's public transport services - 800 docking stations --> less congestion	cheaper for civilians	more sustainable than other transport methods e.g. driving since it has a lower carbon footprint
cycling increased by 40% since November 2022 - improved health
new cycle lanes reduces risk of accidents

Disadvantages:

Social	Economic	Environmental
bikes available to the public can be easily stolen	specific cycle lanes cost considerably more than road cycle lanes
trips may take longer
cycle lanes aren't available everywhere
leaves less road space for motor vehicles and parking
can cause potential conflict with other pedestrians/vehicles
dedicated lanes may cause cyclists to be less cautious

Sustainability

Economic:

• saves NHS £1.7 billion due to improved health

• if pollution isn't reduced, it'll cost the NHS social care system £10.4 billion

• saves citizens money as it's much more expensive to pay for parking (x5 more per square metre)

Environmental:

• reduces carbon emissions

Social:

• Increased popularity of cycling (1.2 mil journeys cycled every day on average)

• accident prone (when sharing with vehicles)

• Pedestrians may find cyclists pass them too closely, vice versa

 

What has been one transport-related initiative used in London to make it more sustainable?

Transport initiative: TfL

Advantages:

Social	Economic	Environmental
Lowers commute times by preventing excess congestion	Connects many different parts of London, making more jobs accessible to more people	Lowers number of cars needed Reduces/prevents excess CO2 emissions
More convenient and readily available than cars	Cheaper for most than owning a car	More and more buses are electric
Night transport improves safety for late night workers	Creates many job opportunities working for TfL

Disadvantages:

Social	Economic	Environmental
Strike actions	High cost	Air pollution
Inadequate service	Low paying jobs	Noise pollution
Unreliable timetable		Water pollution

Sustainability

Economic:

• cheaper than owning a car

• government have to use taxpayer money to invest and make public transport effective, accessible and relatively cheap.

Environmental:

• less air pollution emitted from cars, less traffic on roads

• very noisy, use up a lot of materials to build and maintain.

Social:

• connects London suburbs to the city which makes going to work more accessible, can lower commute timing (when done right)

• strike action and delays can cause major disruption/ delays to civilians’ lives.

What are some factors that make it hard for countries to break out of poverty?

debt, trade and political unrest

How does debt make it hard for a country to break out of poverty?

• many LIDCs have borrowed money at high rates of interest to pay for development projects or to recover from natural disasters.

• poverty has meant that most of these debts are still unpaid placing a huge burden on countries.

• some donor countries and organisations have cancelled or reduced debt to enable LIDCs to develop.

How does trade make it hard for a country to break out of poverty?

• global trade favours richer countries that have formed powerful trading groups (blocs). Most value adding takes place in these countries.

• TNCs tend to be based in ACs, exploiting the LIDCs for their raw materials and relatively cheap labour force.

• For LIDCs to develop, they need to have a better balance of trade, with valuable exports being traded with other countries. Trade also needs to be fair, so that producers get a fair income for what they produce.

How does political unrest make it hard for a country to break out of poverty?

• many LIDCs have unstable and corrupt governments with limited levels of democracy.

• businesses are reluctant to get involved in unstable countries, so investment will be limited.

• corruption results in a lack of internal investment in services, healthcare and education.

• some LIDCs are experiencing civil wars, tribal disputes and terrorism.

What is Rostow's model of development?

the model predicts how a country's economy changes over time

Describe Rostow's first level of development

• the Traditional Society

• based on subsistence farming, fishing and forestry

• little trade

Describe Rostow's second level of development

• pre-conditions for take off

• manufacturing starts to develop

• infrastructure is built

• trading begins

Describe Rostow's third level of development

• take off

• rapid, intensive growth

• large scale industrialisation

• increasing wealth

Describe Rostow's fourth level of development

• the drive to maturity

• economy grows so people get wealthier

• standards of living rise

• widespread use of technology

Describe Rostow's fifth level of development

• high mass consumption

• lots of trade

• goods are mass produced

• people are wealthy so there are high levels of consumption

Overview of the economic development of Ethiopia

Ethiopia is an LIDC and with a HDI of just 0.435, it's one of the world's poorest countries. With a GNI of $505 per capita (2015), average incomes are significantly lower than the world average of $10,858 per capita.

GNI per capita in Ethiopia

$1020

Literacy rate in Ethiopia

51.8% overall:

• male 57.2%

• female 44.7%

Life expectancy in Ethiopia

67.7 years

HDI of Ethiopia

0.492

Internet access in Ethiopia

24%

Ethiopia's top 5 exports

coffee, gold, cut flowers, vegetables, oily seeds

Ethiopia's trade balance

$4 billion earnt from exports, $12 billion spent on imports - $7 billion trade deficit (statistics are a little odd…)

Describe the location of Ethiopia.

Ethiopia is located in the Horn of Africa. It's landlocked and shares a border with 6 countries: Eritrea, Somalia, Djibouti, Kenya, Sudan and South Sudan.

To what extent does Ethiopia fit Rostow's mode of development? [6]

• Ethiopia is probably in stage 2 of development

• pre-conditions for take-off: manufacturing starts to develop, infrastructure built, trading begins

• largely traditional society dominated by agriculture, there have been advances in technology and improvements in education and healthcare.

How has population affected Ethiopia's level of economic development?

Ethiopia has a very large population of over 94 million. As healthcare improves, death rates decline, life expectancy increases --> natural increase in total population.

This means that more people will need to use the same limited amount of resources, leading Ethiopia to be stuck in a cycle of poverty.

How has society affected Ethiopia's level of economic development?

80% of people in Ethiopia are engaged in traditional subsistence agriculture. Change and innovation are treated with some suspicion, which slows down potential development.

How has technology affected Ethiopia's level of economic development?

• in the early 1900s, Italians invested in highways, rail and power

• this meant Ethiopians had more trade routes and access to locations within and outside Ethiopia

• this meant trade and exporting became easier, allowing the country to gain money for economic development

How has politics affected Ethiopia's level of economic development?

• during 1990s to 2000s, Ethiopia's new government allowed free trade, lifted price controls, and provided farmers with cheaper access to imported fertilisers and machinery without paying tax

• → farmers could learn new skills and improve yields, leading to increased food security

• increased agriculture for cheaper also meant that farmers could earn a higher income, and had more food to export out of the country, contributing to an increase in economic development

How have political factors affected Ethiopia's development?

There has been a history of civil war and political unrest in the country, which has had a damaging effect on development. However, there has been a relatively stable government since 2012, and economic development has taken place.

How have social factors affected Ethiopia's development?

• Ethiopia experienced range of setbacks during 1941-1974 from enduring WW2, such as loss of life + political instability

• led to civil unrest, contributing to lack of social development

• also, drought and famine during this time period led to low levels of food security, putting stress of Ethiopians and their government to provide food

• demand of food > supply, leading to loss of life and further decrease in social development

How have environmental/geographical factors affected Ethiopia's development?

Since it's landlocked, Ethiopia has limited access to trading routes, therefore limiting their ability to generate income from exports. Also, steep and rocky slopes make it difficult to farm or use machinery, therefore livestock is limited to lowland areas. Farmers over-grazing this land causes soil erosion and desertification.

For an LIDC you have studied, assess how successful it has been in meeting two of the Millennium Development Goals [8]

• MDG 5 (maternal health): 55% of women have access to contraception; maternal mortality dropped to 23% (better before/after care); increasing age of mothers; fewer forced pregnancies

• MDG 4: infant mortality reduced from 97/1000 to 45/1000; 65% receive vaccinations; however malaria/diarrhoea account for large proportion of deaths in children → bad healthcare for those diseases, but overall more people working in the future

• evaluation → partially successful

How does the range of commodities that Ethiopia export influence its development?

• over 4/5 of Ethiopia's exports are primary products dependent on climate

• e.g. coffee makes up 28% of exports

• if weather is bad, money earnt from trading is lost

• price of commodities regularly fluctuate - if demand decreases, Ethiopia experience a sudden drop in profits

• this leads to further economic instability - the country has little other exports to offset the drop in money

How does the range of commodities that Ethiopia import influence its development?

• top imports related to transport, agriculture, infrastructure

• 15% of imports composed of petroleum/trucks --> more transportation --> more money can be earnt through trade

• 2.8% construction - roads and buildings being constructed

• 3% fertilisers, 2.5% wheat - supports agriculture industry, farmers earn more money, however wheat suggests that the country still doesn’t have enough food to feed population

Describe Ethiopia's patterns of trade.

• Ethiopia mainly exports to Asia and Europe (11% to China, 9.5% to Germany)

• anomaly is Somalia - makes up 8.7% of Ethiopia's exports

• imports are mainly from Asia (21% from China, 8.1% from India)

• anomaly is Italy - accounts for 4.5% of Ethiopia's imports

What are some general advantages of TNCs in LIDCs?

• new technology and skills are brought to poorer countries

• provide job opportunities, so people gain money and new skills

• money is spent in the host country to improve the local infrastructure e.g. roads

What are some general disadvantages of TNCs in LIDCs?

• money made in the host country usually goes back to the company's HQs, which are located in ACs

• jobs aren't very secure; workers can be relocated at any time

• workers are usually paid very low wages

• employees usually work very long hours and/or in poor conditions

What is aid?

Aid is assistance given from one country to another.

What are the types of aid?

ODA, voluntary aid, multi-lateral aid, bi-lateral aid, short-term emergency relief, long-term development assistance

What is official development assistance (ODA)?

aid given by governments and paid for by taxes

What is voluntary aid?

aid given by individuals or companies and distributed by charities or NGOs, like Oxfam

What is multi-lateral aid?

aid given by countries through international bodies, like the IMF

What is bi-lateral aid?

aid given by one country to another

What is short-term emergency relief?

aid to help with immediate problems caused by disasters, like earthquakes or wars

What is long-term development assistance?

aid to help people improve their lives and develop their countries

Evaluate the ways in which debt relief can influence development in Ethiopia. [6]

• Support from international communities meant Ethiopia could benefit from debt relief

• debt reduced from $10 billion to $7 billion in 17 years

• debt saving meant government could invest in local services → improves lives of Ethiopians

• depends on international aid of over $550 million each year → reliant, can't fully support themselves

• securing debt relief is complicated and dependent on global economic conditions

• this reduces the ability of Ethiopia to develop, especially if they don't receive forms of debt relief

• although there are positives, debt relief has made Ethiopia too dependent; usually economy is benefitting, rather than Ethiopians themselves

Evaluate the ways in which aid can influence development in Ethiopia. [6]

• NGOs e.g. Oxfam have a Goat Aid program - gives 2 young goats to 7000 girls, goats breed, family use surplus resources (milk, cheese, meat)

• girls and their families have stable income --> can invest in education by attending school / family can afford proper healthcare/nutrition

• positively influences development - sustainable way for young girls to improve standard of living / generate money for Ethiopia's economy through positive multiplier effect

• short-term form of aid - goats may die from disease

• goats require vaccinations, food, water - hard to provide when family is already struggling from poverty/malnourishment

• small-scale - not many people benefit

• primary industry - country isn't really developing since it's not moving towards tertiary/quaternary industries

• although there are disadvantages, for Ethiopia provides an economic/social benefit for people and influences development positively

For an LIDC you have studied, evaluate the impact of one TNC on its development [8]

• Hilton Addis Ababa grants 150+ 3-month apprenticeships each year → more Ethiopians gain skills → more people can earn higher-paying jobs → quality of life increase - more money for necessities e.g. food, water, healthcare

• jobs offered are mainly seasonal/long hours/low paid → employees under stress whilst working; not enough necessities for the future. also, profit that hotel makes goes back to HQ in ACs → less money for developing host country (Ethiopia)

• infrastructure in Ethiopia underdeveloped → investment required to develop tourism in the country → investment likely to come from TNCs → loop of profits returning to ACs, w/ little money for the host country → negative impact on Ethiopia

What is bottom-up development?

• led by local populations; sometimes referred to as 'self-help' or 'grassroots' schemes

• often supported by NGOs

• target very specified; small-scale needs (identified by local people) that are likely to have an immediate impact

What is top-down development?

• large-scale, advanced, often expensive schemes

• requires loans from the World Bank, or from ACs/other countries

• decisions about these schemes made by government, while local people are rarely involved