(PSY 100) Textbook Chapter 2

Done 2.1, 2.2

_________ claimed that diseases, accidents, and misfortunes result from thoughts people choose.

Louise Hay claimed that diseases, accidents, and misfortunes result from thoughts people choose.

T or F: Louise Hay claimed she cured her own cancer by changing her thinking.

True

Louise Hay’s beliefs & claims are demonstrative of what? What key point does this teach us?

• Demonstrates contrast between personal belief/intuition vs. scientific evidence.

• Science = gathering objective evidence → not based on feelings or intuition.

• If her techniques cured cancer → measurable outcome: cancer patients who use them should live longer than those who don’t.

• Key point: Claims require evidence, not personal conviction.

Claims require _______ not personal conviction.

Claims require evidence not personal conviction.

Give an example of poor ways of testing claims scientifically.

Psychology’s scientific methods aim to…

• Answer what people do (measurement).

• Answer why they do it (relationships between measured variables).

Science requires…

• Good methods of measurement.

• Proper tools for drawing conclusions.

• Critical thinking, which doesn’t come naturally.

Scientific evidence

Objective data (not intuition/feelings/beliefs)

Inner ding

Louise Hay’s phrase for intuition (contrasts with science).

In science, it is common sense that if a claim is true, it should be _____________________.

In science, it is common sense that if a claim is true, it should be measurable/testable.

T or F: Evidence-based testing is the only valid way to confirm or refute claims.

True

Dogmatism v.s. Empiricism

Dogmatism

• comes from greek word dogmatikos = “belief”

• Def: reliance on belief/theory without testing

• Ancient greek dogmatist doctors:

  • Relied on theorizing about illness rather than using observation or evidence

  • As a result —> patients often died under their care

  • Dogmatism approach eventually faded

Empiricism

• comes from greek word empeirikos = “experience”

• def: knowledge acquired through observation & experience

• foundation of modern science

Historical context:

• For most of human history —> people trust authority to provide answers to big questions (e.g. elders, religion, tradition)

• Shift in last millenium —> now there is a reliance on our eyes & ears over elders

__________ is the foundation of modern science.

Empiricism is the foundation of modern science.

What is scientific method?

• Def: Procedure using empirical evidence to establish facts

• Core Idea: Go out, make observations, use them to test if your idea is true

According to scientific method, a theory is…

An explanation of natural phenomena

Provide 2 examples of established scientific theories.

• Bats navigate by echo

• Moon formed by collision

• Brain encodes trauma more strongly

• Natural selection

• The Big Bang

Hypothesis

A falsifiable prediction derived from theory

• Falsifiable —> must specify what should be observed if theory is true

“If bats navigate by sound —> deaf bats should navigate poorly.”

Is the statement above a falsifiable or non-falsifiable hypothesis?

Falsifiable bc…

• it’s derived from theory (aka theory that bats navigate by echo/sound)

• it’s clear what should be observed if theory is true —> blind bats will display greater difficulty moving around

“Things happen because God wants them to”

Is the statement above a falsifiable or non-falsifiable theory?

Non-Falsifiable bc…

• Doesn’t specify what should be observed if it is true

T or F: For a theory to be true, it must be verifiable by scientific method.

False

Just bc a theory cannot be proved using scientific method, doesn’t mean it is wrong

Can theories by proven?

• Theories can be supported, but can never be proven 100% true

  • Consistent observations (i.e. scientific evidence) increase our confidence that a theory is correct — but can never make us 100% confident

• Theories can be disproven though

  • If consistent observations contradicts hypotheses based on the theory (e.g. if deaf bats are found to navigate just as well as hearing bats —> theory that bats navigate using sound would be disproven)

T or F: Theories can be disproven.

True

Give a historical example of the scientific method in action.

(hint: vision)

• Euclid & Ptolemy: supported the emission theory of vision: They believed that the eyes emit rays that travel outward and "touch" objects, allowing us to see them.

• Ibn al-Haytham (965–1039): tested prediction → if true, far objects should take longer to see than near ones.

• Observation: There was no delay in seeing far vs. near objects. → theory falsified.

Empirical Method

(a) Definition

(b) Use in natural science v.s. psychology

(c) What makes empirical method difficult in psychology?

Why was science historically dominated by men?

Many women discourage & prohibited from studying science

Mary Somerville

First person to be called a “scientist”

The term “________” was coined by William Whewell.

The term “scientist” was coined by William Whewell.

What does modern evidence show about gender differences in science?

• Men & women —> differ in interests & talents

• Men & women —> same average talent

• Men are more variable on certain abilities (esp. math-related):

  • Same average talent, but more men at both very low and very high ends.

  • Helps explain why more men appear among “great scientists.”

• Men overrepresented in math-intensive fields (geoscience, physics, math, computer science).

• More women than men in life/social sciences

T or F: Men earn the majority of degrees in life/social sciences.

False.

Women earn majority of degrees in life/social sciences.

Largest gender gaps in hard sciences occur in the most __________ nations."

Largest gender gaps in hard sciences occur in the most gender-equal nations.

How come even when women live in regions where there are equal opportunities to pursue the hard sciences, they still tend to choose different fields?

Most likely due to preference:

• men typically prefer math-heavy sciences (e.g. physics, compsci)

• women typically prefer life & social sciences (e.g. biologist, psychologist, environmental consultant)

T or F: The gender gap in the science field isn’t only due to discrimination — some of it is attributed to people’s own interests and choices.

True (even when doors are equally open, men & women tend to walk through diff doors)

___________ is clinging to a belief without testing it.

Dogmatism is clinging to a belief without testing it.

Empiricism is knowledge through observation.

____________ is knowledge through observation.

In scientific method, a ________ can be used to create a falsifiable hypothesis, which can then be proved or disproven using _________________.

In scientific method, a theory can be used to create a falsifiable hypothesis, which can then be proved or disproven using empirical evidence.

_____________ is the ability of a theory or hypothesis to be disproven by evidence/observation.

Falsifiability is the ability of a theory or hypothesis to be disproven by evidence/observation.

___________, ___________, and _________ are all three challenges faced in psychology when studying humans.

Complexity, variability, and reactivity are all three challenges faced in psychology when studying humans.

Ibn al-Haytham disproved classical vision theory which is the idea that eyes emit rays that touch objects to see them.

___________ disproved classical vision theory which is the idea that eyes emit rays that touch objects to see them.

Theory v.s. Hypothesis

Theory → a broad explanation of how or why something happens; explains phenomena.

Hypothesis → a specific, testable prediction derived from a theory.

Example:

• Theory: Bats navigate using sound.

• Hypothesis: Deaf bats will have difficulty navigating.

Operational Definition

• What is it?

• Example

Def: A description of a property in measurable terms.

Example: Happiness → “number of smiles per hour” or “self-reported happiness rating.”

(a) What makes a operational definition good?

(b) Provide an example of a good and bad operational definition.

(a) Good operational definitions have construct validity — they accurately capture the phenomenon being studied.

(b) Examples:

Of good operational definition for “happiness” = Smiles per hour

Of bad operational definition for “happiness” = Amt of chocolate eaten

In psychology, what do “power” and “reliability” mean when describing measurement instruments?

Power → ability to detect small differences or changes in magnitude.

• Example: Olympic judges detecting a 0.17-second difference in a 100m race.

Reliability → ability to give consistent results when no change has occurred.

• Example: Counting the same number of smiles on two different days if nothing has changed.

Demand Characteristics

• Definition

• Example

Def: Aspects of an observational setting that cause people to behave as they think someone expects.

Example 1:

• Your friend asks you “Am I smart”

• You respond “Yes” not bc that is your honest belief, but because you think your friend expects reassurance

Example 2:

• Participant is asked if they cheated

• They may deny cheating, not because it’s true, but bc they think the researcher expects a socially acceptable response

Ways to avoid Demand Characteristics

1. Naturalistic Observation → unobtrusively observing people in their real environment.

   • Examples:

     • Restaurant tipping patterns (Freeman et al., 1975)

     • Men approaching attractive women (Glenwick et al., 1978)

     • Olympic athletes’ smiles by medal (Medvec et al., 1995)

2. Privacy / Anonymity → responding alone or without recording names.

3. Control / Uncontrollable Measures → measuring behaviors people cannot easily manipulate.

   • Example: Pupillary dilation indicates interest objectively.

4. Unawareness → participants do not know the study’s purpose until after completion.

Observer Bias

• Occurs when the observer sees what they expect rather than what actually happens.

• Psychologists use techniques (e.g., double-blind studies) to prevent bias.

Correlation

Def:

• Relationship b/w variables where a variation in one variable is synchronized with variations in the other.

• Meaning the variables change together — if one variable increases/decreases, the other variable(s) tend to do the same or the opposite

Examples:

• relationship b/w between hours of studying and exam scores

• relationship b/w height & weight

• relationship b/w melanin & race

Variable

• Definition

• Example

Def: A measurable property that can hold/represent different values & vary among individuals or situations.

Example:

• Age

• Height

• Test scores

• Sex

• Ethnicity

• Occupation

Independent Variable v.s. Dependent Variable

Independent Variable —> Property that is changed by the researcher

Dependent Variable —> Property that is measured in response to the change made in independent variable

Positive Correlation v.s. Negative Correlation

Positive correlation: Two variables moving in the same “direction” (both variables increase simultaneously or decrease simultaneously)

Example: More sleep —> Higher productivity

Negative correlation —> Two variables moving in opposite “direction” (one variable increases as other one variable decreases)

Example: Less sleep associated with more colds

Natural Correlation

Def: A correlation observed in the real world

Example: More media violence is associated w/ more aggression

Why does correlation not equal causation?

• Just because two things are related doesn’t mean one causes the other.

• A third factor may be influencing both.

Third-Variable Problem

• Definition

• Example

• Def: Occurs when an unmeasured/hidden factor (3rd variable) influences both the independent & dependent variables —> creating a false association.

• Example: Media violence ↔ aggression

  • Violence might cause aggression.

  • Aggression might cause people to seek violent media.

  • A third variable (like lack of adult supervision) could cause both.

In 1949, increased sales of ice cream was associated with more polio cases. This is a historical example of the ____________________.

In 1949, increased sales of ice cream was associated with more polio cases. This is a historical example of the Third-Variable Problem.

• Real explanation: Summer weather increased both ice cream consumption and virus activity.

___________________ can describe relationships, but cannot prove causation.

Correlational Research can describe relationships, but cannot prove causation.

_____________ & _____________ are essential for all true experiments.

Manipulation & random assignment are essential for all true experiments.

Name and describe 2 methods used in experiments to remedy the Third-Variable problem.

1. Manipulation

2. Random Assignment

What can and can’t we conclude from correlations v.s. experiments?

From correlations you…

• can conclude that variables are related

• can NOT conclude if one causes the other

From experiments you…

• Can test & conclude if one variable causes changes in the other

• BUT there are LIMITS —> Experiments may use artificial settings or face ethical restrictions

Manipulation & random assignment are methods/techniques used to establish _____________________________ between variables.

Manipulation & random assignment are methods/techniques used to establish casual relationships between variables.

___________________ allows for stronger causal conclusions, but not absolute certainty.

Experimental evidence allows for stronger causal conclusions, but not absolute certainty.

What is experimentation in psychology?

• A technique to test causal relationships between variables.

• Uses manipulation and random assignment to reduce third-variable problems.

What does manipulation mean in experiments? Provide an example.

• Intentionally changing one variable to see its effect.

• Example: Test if a roommate’s Xbox slows internet → compare Xbox on vs. off conditions.

What is random assignment, and why is it important?

• Participants are randomly placed into groups (experimental vs. control).

• Ensures differences between groups are not due to a third variable.

Experiments produce _______ but interpreting evidence requires ________________.

Experiments produce evidence but interpreting evidence requires critical thinking.

Willingham stated that many people fail at drawing proper conclusions form experimentation because of how difficult ______________ is.

Willingham stated that many people fail at drawing proper conclusions form experimentation because of how difficult critical thinking is.

Describe the psychological tendencies that make critical thinking difficult.

(Hint: Every Cat Meows With Silly Excuses, Saying 'Nonsense—Oops!')

1. Expectation Bias/Confirmation Bias

   • We see what we expect to see

   • Prior beliefs color interpretation of evidence

   • Text example: Darley & Gross (1983) — same video of “Hannah”; participants told she was rich rated her performance higher than participants told she was poor. Each group cited the same video evidence to defend opposing views.

2. Motivated Reasoning/Wishful Thinking

   • We interpret mixed evidence to support our preexisting preferences.

   • Text example: Lord et al. (1979) — participants shown mixed evidence about the death penalty became more convinced of their original stance (supporters got more supportive; opponents more opposed).

3. Selective Exposure/Echo Chambers

   • People surround themselves with like-minded sources and friends, so they mostly see confirming evidence.

   • Text mention: Facebook users create “echo chambers” by sharing links mainly with those who already agree (Del Vicario et al., 2016).

4. Search Bias

   • When allowed to search for evidence, people preferentially seek confirmatory info (Hart et al., 2009). If confirmatory evidence is found they stop; if disconfirming, they keep searching. (Kunda, Gesiarz et al.)

5. Neglect of Missing Evidence

   • We focus on what we see and neglect what’s hidden or missing.

   • Text example: Newman, Wolff & Hearst (1980) trigrams — participants looking for presence of T figured it out; participants looking for absence of T never figured it out.

   • Kidney cancer maps example (Wainer & Zwerling, 2006): looking only at counties with lowest rates leads to wrong conclusions unless you also look at the counties with highest rates.

6. Overconfidence

   • Social validation and selective evidence feed confidence, making it harder to doubt your own conclusions.

Q: What psychological tendencies make critical thinking difficult? (NTS: duplicate —> other one is same question, but diff answer — choose one)

• Confirmation bias / Expectation bias: See what we expect (Darley & Gross “Hannah” study).

• Motivated reasoning / Wishful thinking: Interpret mixed evidence to support existing beliefs (Lord et al. death-penalty study).

• Selective exposure / Echo chambers: Surround ourselves with confirming info (Facebook sharing, Del Vicario et al., 2016).

• Search bias: Seek confirming evidence, avoid disconfirming evidence.

• Neglect of missing evidence: Focus only on visible data, ignore absences (Trigram task; kidney cancer maps).

• Overconfidence loop: Social validation + selective evidence → inflated certainty.

Q: Why is critical thinking necessary when interpreting experimental evidence?

• Experiments produce evidence, but evidence alone isn’t enough.

• People often misinterpret results due to cognitive biases and motivated reasoning.

• Teaching critical thinking is hard because these tendencies are built-in (Willingham, 2007).

(a) What are two rules someone can use to improve their critical rules?

(b) Name 3 concrete tactics that can help you apply critical thinking rules?

• Rule 1 — Doubt your own conclusions.

  • Actively seek disconfirming evidence.

  • Share ideas with critics; ask, “What would prove me wrong?”

• Rule 2 — Consider what you don’t see.

  • Look for missing data or unreported results.

  • Ask, “What evidence is absent? Who’s not included?”

Describe 2 short examples of critical thinking challenges.

• Hannah study (Darley & Gross, 1983): Expectations shape identical evidence.

• Death penalty (Lord et al., 1979): Mixed evidence makes people more polarized.

• Trigrams (Newman et al., 1980): Hard to detect patterns defined by absence.

• Kidney cancer maps (Wainer & Zwerling, 2006): Missing complementary data → false conclusions.

• Social media echo chambers (Del Vicario et al., 2016): Networks amplify confirmatory info.

Write/provide a checklist that you would used to ensure you have taken all the necessary steps in order to evaluate a claim or a study.

• What is the claim? (clear & specific?)

• What evidence is shown? Is it representative or cherry-picked?

• What evidence is missing or not reported? (negative results, opposite map, null effects)

• Could prior beliefs or motivations be shaping interpretation? (yours or the authors’)

• Are there plausible third variables or alternative explanations?

• Was the study replicated? Large sample? Random assignment (if claiming causation)?

• Who funded/benefits from the claim? Any conflict of interest?

• Would disconfirming evidence change your mind? If not, examine why.

Confirmation Bias

Interpretations evidence to confirm your beliefs/expectations.

Selective exposure is seeking out information that agrees with you/your stance.

Selective exposure (echo chamber) is seeking out information that agrees with you/your stance.

Neglect of missing evidence is failing to consider what’s absent in an experiment.

Neglect of missing evidence is one failing to consider what’s absent.

NTS: Add the following info to flashcards: Darley & Gross (1983) — “Hannah” study (expectation effects).

• Lord et al. (1979) — death penalty / backfire of mixed evidence.

• Newman, Wolff & Hearst (1980) — trigrams (absence-detection failure).

• Wainer & Zwerling (2006) — kidney cancer maps (importance of missing data).

• Del Vicario et al. (2016) — social-media echo chambers.

• Willingham (2007) — limited effectiveness of critical-thinking instruction.

Name & briefly describe the core principles of ethical research.

• Belmont Report (1979) → foundation of modern research ethics.

  • Respect for persons → individuals’ autonomy; no undue influence/coercion.

  • Beneficence → maximize benefits, minimize risks.

  • Justice → equal distribution of benefits/risks across groups.

• APA Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct (2017) → expands Belmont Report into detailed rules.

The Belmont Report was released in 1979.

The Belmont Report was released in 1979.

T or F: the Nuremberg Code was released in 1947 as a response to Nazi experiments?

True

Q: What are the three core principles of the Belmont Report (1979)?

• Respect for persons: Protect autonomy; no undue influence/coercion.

• Beneficence: Maximize benefits, minimize risks.

• Justice: Distribute benefits/risks fairly across groups.

Q: What historical abuses led to modern research ethics?

• Nazi experiments → Nuremberg Code (1947).

• Declaration of Helsinki (1964): Expanded protections for humans.

• Tuskegee syphilis study (1932–1972): 399 Black men denied treatment to study disease → government “used human beings as laboratory animals” (Jones, 1993).

Q: What rules does the APA Code set for human research?

• Informed consent: Adults must agree knowing risks; guardians if incapable.

• Freedom from coercion: No physical, psychological, or financial pressure.

• Protection from harm: Always choose safer alternatives.

• Risk–benefit analysis: Only small risks allowed, must be outweighed by social value.

• Deception: Only if justified and not about harmful aspects.

• Debriefing: Participants must be fully informed afterward.

• Confidentiality: Personal info must stay private.

Q: What are APA rules for animal research?

• Supervised by trained psychologists.

• Must minimize discomfort, illness, and pain.

• Painful/stressful procedures allowed only if no alternative and scientifically justified.

• Surgery must use anesthesia and minimize post-op pain.

• Debate:

  • Peter Singer (1975): Equal rights for all creatures capable of pain.

  • PETA/animal rights groups: Push to end all animal research.

  • Public opinion (Gallup, 2018): Majority find animal research morally acceptable.

• Only a small % of psychology studies involve animals; even fewer involve pain.

Q: How does psychology enforce respect for truth?

• IRBs: Oversee ethical data collection, not reporting.

• Scientists expected to analyze/report honestly and transparently.

• Quote: “Science is the ultimate democracy” — truth can overturn authority (Einstein as patent clerk).

• Dishonesty undermines trust; truth-seeking is central to psychology.