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Sociological Perspective
Understanding human behavior by placing it within its broader social context.
Sociological Imagination (Wright Mills)
Sociological Imagination (Wright Mills)
The ability to see the relationship between individual experiences and larger social forces (history and biography).
Social Location
The group memberships people have because of their location in history and society (e.g., class, gender, race).
Origins of Sociology
Sociology arose due to the Enlightenment, Industrial Revolution, and urbanization, challenging traditional views of society.
Social Theory
A set of principles and propositions that explains relationships between social phenomena.
Karl Marx's Critique of Capitalism
Marx argued that capitalism exploits workers, leading to class conflict and inequality.
Durkheim’s Types of Suicide
Egoistic, altruistic, anomic, fatalistic – based on social integration and regulation.
Mechanical vs. Organic Solidarity
Social cohesion through similarity (traditional societies) vs. social cohesion through interdependence (modern societies).
Max Weber – The Protestant Ethic
Protestant ethics and values, such as hard work and frugality, contributed to the development of capitalism.
Weber's Forms of Legitimate Domination
Traditional, charismatic, and legal-rational authority.
W.E.B. Du Bois and American Sociology
Studied race and racism in the U.S., focusing on the double consciousness of African Americans.
Structural Functionalism
A theoretical perspective that views society as a complex system with parts working together for stability.
Symbolic Interactionism
Focuses on how people use symbols to create meaning and interact with each other.
Conflict Theory
Emphasizes the role of power and conflict in society, particularly between different social classes
Research Questions
Questions that guide sociological research and focus on understanding social phenomena.
Independent Variable
The variable that causes change in an experiment.
Dependent Variable
The variable that is affected or changed as a result of the independent variable.
Quantitative vs. Qualitative Research
Focus on numerical data vs. focus on descriptive, non-numerical data.
Steps in the Research Process
1.)Define the problem, 2) Review the literature, 3) Formulate hypothesis, 4) Choose research method, 5) Collect data, 6) Analyze results, 7) Share results.
Ethnographic Fieldwork
In-depth study of people and cultures through close observation and interaction.
Causality vs. Correlation
One variable causes another vs. two variables are related but one does not cause the other.
Reliability vs. Validity
Consistency of a measure vs. accuracy of the measure.
Culture
The beliefs, behaviors, objects, and other characteristics shared by members of a society.
Material Culture vs. Symbolic Culture
Physical objects vs. non-material aspects like beliefs, values, and norms.
Norms
Rules and expectations by which a society guides the behavior of its members (folkways, mores, taboos, laws).
Ethnocentrism vs. Cultural Relativism
Judging other cultures by one's own standards vs. understanding a culture on its own terms.
Cultural Diffusion
The spread of cultural beliefs and practices from one group to another.
Public Sphere
A space where individuals can discuss societal issues and influence political action.
The Medium is the Message (Marshall McLuhan)
The idea that the form of a medium embeds itself in the message, influencing how the message is perceived.
Cultural Capital (Pierre Bourdieu)
Non-financial assets that promote social mobility, such as education, intellect, and appearance.
Social theories are frameworks used to understand society and social behaviors.
What is the key to formulating effective sociological research questions?
The question should be clear, specific, focused on social phenomena, and open to empirical investigation. It must also be answerable with available research methods.
What are the six key questions to ensure a research question is specific, measurable, and answerable?
Who, What, When, Where, Why, and How.
What strategies can help avoid bias in research?
Use randomized sampling, ensure transparency in data collection, and be aware of researcher bias by maintaining neutrality.
What is operationalization in research?
It’s the process of defining variables and concepts so they can be measured and tested.
What’s the difference between independent and dependent variables?
The independent variable is manipulated to see its effect on the dependent variable, which is the outcome being measured.
What’s the difference between quantitative and qualitative research?
Quantitative research relies on numerical data and statistics, while qualitative research focuses on experiences, meanings, and descriptions.
What are the key stages in the research process?
1) Identify the problem, 2) Review the literature, 3) Formulate a hypothesis, 4) Design the study, 5) Collect data, 6) Analyze data, 7) Report conclusions
What are the strengths and weaknesses of surveys and interviews?
Surveys can reach a large group quickly but may lack depth. Interviews provide rich, detailed data but are time-consuming.
What is ethnography?
A research method involving the immersive study of people in their natural environments through fieldwork and participant observation.
What is historical/comparative research?
It involves comparing past events or societies to understand patterns or differences over time.
What are ethical considerations in big data research?
Ensuring privacy, informed consent, and addressing potential misuse of personal data are key ethical concerns.
What’s the difference between causality and correlation?
Causality implies that one event directly leads to another, while correlation means there is a relationship between two variables but not necessarily a cause-and-effect link.
What is a spurious correlation?
A false or misleading relationship between two variables that is caused by a third factor.
What’s the difference between reliability and validity?
Reliability refers to consistency in results, while validity measures the accuracy of the results.
What are some key ethical challenges in sociological research?
Ensuring participant safety, obtaining informed consent, avoiding harm, and maintaining confidentiality.
How is culture defined in sociology?
Culture consists of the shared beliefs, behaviors, and objects within a society.
What is the difference between material and symbolic culture?
Material culture includes physical objects and artifacts, while symbolic culture refers to ideas, beliefs, and norms.
How does culture shape everyday life?
Cultural differences affect how people perceive the world, communicate, and behave, influencing daily routines, traditions, and social interactions.
What are norms and values in a society?
Norms are the rules that guide behavior, while values represent deeply held beliefs about what is important or right.
What are the differences between folkways, mores, taboos, laws, and sanctions?
Folkways: Informal norms governing casual interactions (e.g., manners).
Mores: Strongly held norms with moral significance (e.g., honesty).
Taboos: Prohibitions against extreme behaviors (e.g., incest).
Laws: Formalized norms enforced by institutions.
Sanctions: Penalties or rewards for following or breaking norms.
how do subcultures and countercultures challenge mainstream culture?
Subcultures have distinct values or norms but exist within the dominant culture, while countercultures actively oppose mainstream societal norms.
What is a value clash, and what are core values?
A value clash occurs when core values within a society conflict with each other, revealing contradictions in cultural ideals. Core values are the fundamental principles shared by most members of a society.
What is the difference between ethnocentrism and cultural relativism?
Ethnocentrism is the judgment of other cultures based on the standards of one’s own, while cultural relativism seeks to understand cultures on their own terms.
What is cultural diffusion, and how does it lead to cultural leveling?
Cultural diffusion is the spread of cultural traits from one society to another. Cultural leveling occurs when different cultures become more alike through the exchange of ideas and practices.
What role do symbols and habitus play in culture?
Symbols represent shared meanings that enable communication, while habitus refers to the ingrained habits, skills, and dispositions shaped by one’s social environment.
What is the public sphere, and how does the culture industry influence society?
The public sphere is where individuals come together to discuss and debate societal issues. The culture industry, often through mass media, shapes public opinion and cultural norms.
How do the media and the internet influence communication, democracy, and cultural values?
They act as platforms for the dissemination of information, influence democratic participation, and shape societal values through mass communication and interaction.
