Social Psychology

What is Attribution Theory?

The theory that we explain others' behaviors by crediting either the situation or the person's disposition.

What is the Fundamental Attribution Error?

The tendency for observers to underestimate the importance of the situation and overestimate the impact of personal disposition.

What is the Just-World Phenomenon?

The belief that the world is fair, leading people to blame victims for their misfortune.

What is Saliency Bias?

The tendency to focus on dispositional factors because situational factors are less noticeable.

What is the Actor-Observer Bias?

The tendency to attribute one's own actions to external causes while attributing others' behaviors to internal causes.

What is Self-Serving Bias?

The tendency to take more credit for good outcomes than for bad ones to protect self-esteem.

What is Social Loafing?

The tendency for individuals to contribute less effort when working as part of a group.

What is Social Striving?

The tendency for individuals to contribute more effort when working as part of a group.

What is Group Polarization?

The process where participation in a group amplifies existing attitudes, leading to more extreme decisions.

What is Groupthink?

The pressure for unanimous decisions in a group that prevents the discussion of reasonable alternatives.

What is Deindividuation?

The loss of identity or self-restraint due to membership in a group, often leading to uncharacteristic behavior.

What was the primary finding of the Stanford Prison Experiment?

Individuals immersed in roles within a group can develop strong cohesion that reduces personal responsibility and leads to sadistic behavior.

How can leaders counteract Groupthink?

By encouraging divergent views, consulting outside experts, and assigning a 'devil's advocate'.

What is Conformity?

The tendency to adopt the behaviors, attitudes, and beliefs of other group members.

What did the Asch Conformity Experiments demonstrate?

That individuals will often conform to an incorrect majority opinion due to group pressure.

How does group size affect conformity?

Conformity increases with group size up to seven members, after which it levels off.

What is the effect of unanimity on conformity?

If at least one person disagrees with the majority, the likelihood of a subject conforming decreases significantly.

What is Obedience to Authority?

The performance of an action in response to direct orders from an authority figure.

What did Milgram's Obedience Experiments reveal?

That a high percentage of ordinary citizens will obey authority figures even when instructed to perform actions conflicting with their personal values.

What are attitudes?

Beliefs and feelings about objects, people, and events that predispose our reactions and behaviors.

What is the Mere Exposure Effect?

The phenomenon where increased exposure to something leads to a greater liking of it.

What is Cognitive Dissonance Theory?

The theory that people are motivated to maintain consistency between their attitudes and behaviors.

In which type of culture is Social Loafing more common?

Individualistic cultures.

In which type of culture is Social Striving more common?

Collectivist cultures.

What is the primary cause of the Fundamental Attribution Error?

It is a widespread tendency to prioritize disposition over situation, though it is less common in collectivist cultures.

What is cognitive dissonance?

Unpleasant mental tension experienced when one's actions or beliefs do not align.

What is the central route to persuasion?

Persuasion based on factual information, logical arguments, and thoughtful analysis.

What is the peripheral route to persuasion?

Persuasion based on emotional appeals and incidental cues like likability or slogans.

What is the foot-in-the-door phenomenon?

Getting a person to agree to a small request as a setup for a larger request.

What is the door-in-the-face phenomenon?

Suggesting a large request that will be refused, followed by a smaller, more reasonable request.

What are norms of reciprocity?

The social expectation that if someone does something nice for you, you should return the favor.

What is the bystander effect?

The phenomenon where individuals are less likely to help in an emergency when others are present.

How does group size affect the bystander effect?

As group size increases, the likelihood of any individual helping decreases because responsibility is diffused.

What is social facilitation?

Increased performance on easy or well-learned tasks in the presence of an audience.

What is social interference?

Decreased performance on difficult or unfamiliar tasks in the presence of an audience.

What is an in-group?

A group a person identifies with and feels they belong to.

What is in-group bias?

The tendency to judge in-group members favorably and out-group members unfavorably.

What is the out-group homogeneity effect?

The tendency to perceive members of an out-group as being very similar to one another.

What is ethnocentrism?

The tendency to consider other cultures, customs, and values as inferior to one's own.

What is a stereotype?

A mental image that exaggerates or oversimplifies the characteristics of a group.

What is the difference between prejudice and discrimination?

Prejudice is a learned attitude or prejudgment, while discrimination is the negative action directed at a group.

What is a scapegoat?

An innocent target toward whom frustration and prejudice are directed.

What is contact theory?

The idea that contact between hostile groups can reduce animosity.

What is a subordinate goal?

A shared goal that requires cooperation from all members to benefit the entire group.

What are the three components of the self according to Crisp and Turner?

The individual self (personality traits), the relational self (relationships), and the collective self (group membership).

What does social identity theory state?

A person's sense of self is based on their group membership.

How does social categorization influence self-image?

People enhance their self-image by favoring their in-group and discriminating against the out-group.

What is self-concept?

The image or perception we have of ourselves, which is influenced by interactions with others.

How does self-concept change with age?

It becomes more detailed, organized, and stable as people mature.

What factors increase the likelihood of bystanders helping?

Seeing others help, knowing how to provide assistance, and being asked for help directly.

What is a self-fulfilling prophecy?

When a person unknowingly causes a prediction to come true because they expect it to happen.

What is the Pygmalion Effect?

A phenomenon where positive teacher expectations influence student performance positively.

Define altruism.

The unselfish regard for the welfare of others.

What is prosocial behavior?

Any action that benefits other people, regardless of the motive.

What is the norm of reciprocity?

A social expectation that we feel pressured to help others if they have already done something for us.

What does the matching hypothesis suggest regarding attraction?

Romantic partners are most likely to be judged by others as similar in physical attractiveness.

What is the difference between romantic love and companionate love?

Romantic love is based on intense attraction and fades over time, while companionate love is based on respect, commitment, and intimacy.

What is the frustration-aggression hypothesis?

The theory that frustration can ignite anger, which may lead to aggressive behavior.

What are superordinate goals?

Shared goals that override differences among people and require joint effort to achieve.

What was the result of Festinger's $1 or $20 study?

Participants paid $1 to lie about a task revised their beliefs to find the task interesting to reduce cognitive dissonance.

What did Zimbardo's Prison Study demonstrate?

The negative consequences of individuals assuming and conforming to social roles.

What did Asch's Line Study reveal about conformity?

Approximately 70% of participants conformed to a group's incorrect answer at least once.

What was the primary finding of Milgram's Shock Study?

65% of participants obeyed an authority figure's demand to administer what they believed was a maximum shock level.

According to evolutionary theory, why does altruism occur toward close relatives?

To ensure the continuation of shared genes.

What is the primary factor in initial attraction?

Physical attractiveness.

What is the Similarity Principle in attraction?

The tendency to be attracted to people who share our interests, values, and experiences.

How does proximity influence attraction?

It promotes familiarity, making people seem safer and more approachable.

What biological factors are linked to aggression?

Alcohol abuse and testosterone levels.

How can aggression be reduced if it is learned behavior?

By reinforcing non-aggressive behavior and removing aggressive models from view.

What role does empathy play in altruism?

People are more likely to engage in altruistic behavior when they feel empathy for someone in distress.

What are conciliatory acts?

Actions designed to appease or overcome hostility between parties.

What is the definition of aggression?

Behavior that is intended to cause harm.

What is the difference between conformity and obedience?

Conformity is altering behavior to fit in with a group, while obedience is altering behavior in response to an authority figure.

What is an attribution?

A conclusion about the cause of an observed behavior or event.

What is a situational attribution?

Explaining behavior based on factors outside the person, such as peer pressure.

What is a dispositional attribution?

Explaining behavior based on a person's stable traits, personality, or abilities.

How do people typically explain their own behavior compared to others?

We tend to blame the situation for our own failures while taking personal credit for our successes.

How do collectivist cultures differ from individualist cultures in making attributions?

They attribute behavior more to the situation, give credit for success to others, and take personal blame for failures.

What is an attitude?

Feelings, ideas, and beliefs that affect how we approach and react to people, objects, and events.

What is central route persuasion?

Changing attitudes by appealing to the rational mind with evidence and logic.

What is peripheral route persuasion?

Influencing attitudes by bypassing the rational mind and appealing to fears, desires, or associations.

Under what four conditions do attitudes best predict actions?

When external influences are minimal, the attitude is stable, the attitude is specific to the behavior, and the attitude is easily recalled.

How does role-playing affect attitudes?

When we play a role, we eventually tend to adopt the attitudes that go with that role and become the role.

What does cognitive dissonance theory suggest we do to resolve dissonance?

We change our attitudes to fit our actions.

In Festinger's study, which group shifted their attitudes about a boring activity more?

The group paid a small amount, as they had to justify their behavior without the excuse of a large payment.

What is the primary focus of social psychology?

How we think about, influence, and relate to one another.

Why do we tend to blame the situation for our own failures?

Because we have the perspective of the actor and are more aware of the situational factors affecting us.

How does the explanation of a person's behavior affect our reaction to them?

It determines whether we respond with empathy or hostility.

What is the main takeaway from the Williams College study regarding the Fundamental Attribution Error?

People persist in making dispositional attributions even when they are given facts that explain the behavior as situational.

What is the 'fake it till you make it' concept in relation to attitudes?

The idea that acting a certain way can eventually lead to genuinely adopting the attitudes associated with that behavior.

What is the definition of a collectivist culture?

A culture that emphasizes group unity, allegiance, and purpose over the wishes of the individual.

How does the Stanford Prison Study illustrate the power of roles?

Participants randomly assigned as guards or prisoners quickly adopted the attitudes and behaviors associated with those roles.

What is the difference between an attitude and an action?

An attitude is a belief or feeling, while an action is the behavior resulting from or influencing that belief.

What is the main goal of peripheral route persuasion?

To influence attitudes using emotional associations rather than logical arguments.

What is the 'Chameleon Effect' in social psychology?

The phenomenon of unconscious mimicry where individuals adopt the behaviors, gestures, or mannerisms of those around them.

What are four examples of automatic mimicry?

Contagious yawning, adopting regional accents or grammar, empathetic mood shifts, and adopting coping styles of peers or parents.

What was the primary finding of the Asch conformity studies?

About one-third of people will agree with obvious mistruths to conform to the group's consensus.

Define Normative Social Influence.

Conforming to others to gain social approval or belonging and to avoid rejection.

Define Informational Social Influence.

Conforming to others because their ideas and behavior provide evidence that changes our own perspective.

List three factors that increase the likelihood of conformity.

Lack of firm commitment to a belief, a unanimous group, and being in a culture that encourages respect for norms.