hist 1623

Philip II

King of Macedon from 359-336 BCE; father of Alexander the Great; reformed the Macedonian army with the phalanx and sarissa.

Macedonian Phalanx

Military formation improved by Philip II using long sarissa spears for greater reach.

Sarissa

A very long spear introduced by Philip II, central to the Macedonian phalanx.

Alexander becomes king

Alexander becomes king in 336 BCE at age 20.

Destruction of Thebes

Alexander destroys Thebes to suppress revolts and assert authority in Greece.

Visit to Troy

Alexander visits Troy, believing himself a descendant of Achilles.

Battle of the Granicus

Alexander's first major victory in Asia; dedicates victory 'from Alexander, son of Philip, and the Greeks, except the Spartans.'

Gordian Knot

Prophecy that whoever untied it would rule Asia; Alexander cuts through it with his sword.

Battle of Issus

Major early battle where Alexander defeats Darius III.

Alexander in Egypt

Alexander stays for six months, founds Alexandria, introduces Greek-style urban planning.

Claims of divinity

Alexander increasingly portrays himself as son of Zeus, upsetting Macedonian troops.

Battle of Gaugamela

Decisive 331 BCE victory where Alexander defeats Darius III and becomes King of Asia.

Destruction of Persepolis

Symbolic destruction of Persian capital; demonstrates Alexander's domination over Persia.

Death of Darius III

Darius III is assassinated by his governor Bessus; Alexander claims rightful succession.

Marriage to Roxane

Alexander marries the Bactrian noblewoman, angering Macedonians.

Alexander's troops revolt

Troops refuse to continue marching in India; force Alexander to turn back.

Battle of the Hydaspes

Alexander defeats King Porus but allows him to retain his kingdom.

Death of Hephaistion

Alexander's closest companion dies; Alexander goes into deep mourning.

Death of Alexander

Alexander dies in 323 BCE at age 32 in Babylon.

Diadochi

Alexander's successors who fight for control of the empire (323-290s BCE).

Hellenistic Kingdoms

Four kingdoms: Antigonid Macedonia, Seleukid Asia, Attalid Pergamon, Ptolemaic Egypt.

Cynicism

Hellenistic philosophy rejecting social convention; Diogenes is its key figure.

Epicureanism

Founded by Epicurus; universe is random; goal is ataraxia—an untroubled mind.

Stoicism

Philosophy emphasizing virtue, emotional discipline, and living according to reason.

End of the Hellenistic Period

Ends in 30 BCE with the death of Cleopatra VII.

Cosmopolitanism in Hellenistic cities

Greek elites dominate society while local populations remain separate.

Hellenistic income inequality

Wealth gaps grow significantly during the period.

Hellenistic coinage

Portrait coins become widespread, representing rulers visually.

Hellenistic art

More emotional, dramatic, and realistic compared to Classical idealism.

Great Altar of Pergamon

Major Hellenistic monument with Gigantomachy frieze.

Founding of Alexandria

Founded in 331 BCE by Alexander; becomes major Hellenistic center.

Library of Alexandria

Largest library in the ancient world; burned during Caesar's campaign.

Pharos Lighthouse

One of the Seven Wonders; destroyed by earthquake in 1303.

Foundation of Rome

Romulus founds Rome in 753 BCE after killing Remus.

Augury

Divination through interpreting birds.

Haruspex

Roman priest who reads animal entrails.

Pax Deorum

"Peace of the gods"; maintaining proper religious relations.

Penates

Household gods associated with the storeroom.

Janus

God of doorways, beginnings, and endings; represented with two faces.

Rape of Lucretia

Sextus Tarquinius assaults Lucretia, leading to the overthrow of the monarchy.

End of Roman monarchy

509 BCE; founding of the Republic.

SPQR

Senatus Populusque Romanus—"The Senate and People of Rome."

Consuls

Two annually elected chief magistrates with imperium.

Senate

Oligarchic body of former magistrates; most powerful institution in the Republic.

Centuriate Assembly

Voting assembly weighted heavily toward the wealthy.

Cursus Honorum

Sequence of magistracies: quaestor, aedile, praetor, consul.

Tribune of the Plebs

Office with sacrosanctity and veto power.

Twelve Tables

Earliest Roman law code (451-450 BCE).

Struggle of the Orders

Plebeian fight for political equality.

Carthage

Phoenician city-state; Rome's rival in Punic Wars.

First Punic War

Conflict over Sicily (264-241 BCE); Rome wins.

Corvus

Roman naval boarding device allowing land-style combat at sea.

Second Punic War

218-202 BCE; Hannibal invades Italy.

Hannibal crosses the Alps

Major feat of the Second Punic War.

Battle of Cannae

216 BCE; Rome's worst military defeat, losing 50k-70k soldiers.

Scipio Africanus

General who defeats Hannibal at Zama.

Battle of Zama

202 BCE; Rome wins Second Punic War.

Third Punic War

149-146 BCE; ends with destruction of Carthage.

"Carthago delenda est"

Cato the Elder's call for the destruction of Carthage.

Ager Publicus

Public land controlled by wealthy elites.

Tiberius Gracchus

Tribune proposing land reform; killed in 133 BCE.

Gaius Gracchus

Tribune proposing wider reforms; killed in 121 BCE.

Legacy of the Gracchi

Reforms endure; political violence becomes normalized.

Marius

General and consul seven times; reforms army to recruit landless poor.

"Marius's Mules"

Soldiers carrying heavy personal gear due to Marian reforms.

Sulla

General who marches on Rome; dictator using proscriptions.

Proscriptions

Lists of enemies marked for execution and property seizure.

Mithridatic War conflict

Dispute over command between Marius and Sulla; sparks civil war.

First Triumvirate

Informal alliance of Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus.

Caesar in Gaul

Conquers Gaul 58-50 BCE; writes Commentarii.

Death of Julia

Breaks Pompey-Caesar family bond.

Death of Crassus

At Carrhae (53 BCE); destabilizes triumvirate.

Caesar crosses the Rubicon

49 BCE; starts civil war.

"The die is cast"

Caesar's statement when crossing the Rubicon.

Battle of Pharsalus

Caesar defeats Pompey.

Assassination of Caesar

Ides of March, 44 BCE.

Second Triumvirate

Official alliance of Octavian, Antony, and Lepidus.

Proscriptions of the Triumvirate

Violent political purges including death of Cicero.

Battle of Actium

31 BCE; Octavian defeats Antony and Cleopatra.

Augustus' powers

Consular imperium, tribunician power, pontifex maximus.

Ara Pacis

Altar celebrating Augustan peace.

Augustus' building program

Transforms Rome with new marble monuments.

Tiberius

Reluctant emperor; retires to Capri; not deified.

Caligula

"Mad emperor"; assassinated in 41 CE.

Claudius

Capable administrator; expands bureaucracy; deified after death.

Nero

Great Fire of Rome; persecutes Christians; declared enemy of state.

Year of the Four Emperors

69 CE; Galba, Otho, Vitellius, Vespasian.

Flavian Dynasty

Vespasian, Titus, Domitian.

Colosseum

Built under Vespasian; Flavian Amphitheatre.

Eruption of Vesuvius

79 CE; destroys Pompeii and Herculaneum.

Pliny the Younger

Writes eyewitness account of the eruption.

Five Good Emperors

Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius.

Trajan

Expands empire to largest extent.

Hadrian

Consolidates empire; builds Hadrian's Wall.

Marcus Aurelius

Stoic philosopher emperor; author of Meditations.

Commodus

Son of Marcus Aurelius; tyrannical; assassinated.

Septimius Severus

Founder of Severan dynasty.

Caracalla

Issues Antonine Constitution granting citizenship to all free men.

Elagabalus

Teen emperor; religious controversy; assassinated.

Crisis of the Third Century

Period of military anarchy, economic collapse, and invasions (235-284 CE).