Ancient Warfare Test #3

S. Iran

Modern province of Fars

Cyrus

Persian Empire became prominent in the 6th C BC under ruler Cyrus

Persian Kings (descent)

All the kings of Persia claimed descent from Achaemenes (mythical ancestor), called Achaemenids

Persian Period of Expansion

Under Cyrus and then his son Cambyses, then Darius, period of expansion

Cyrus (expansion)

Lydia and the Babylonian Empire. At death empire was from the Mediterranean to the Indian Ocean

Cambyses (expansion)

Egypt

Darius I (expansion)

Parts of the Indus Valley, Central Asia, Libya, NE Greece (becomes largest empire in Near Eastern history)

Satrap

Governor, literally translated as “protector of the kingdom”

Usually high ranking Persian, other Persian nobles given estates throughout empire

Darius I

Distant relative within the family tree of the Achaemenids Emerged after succession crisis following Cambyses death

Darius I (government structure)

Reorganised empire after series of rebellions.

Separates empire into 20 provinces, all governed by a satrap

Behistun Relief with Darius I

Behistun Relief with Darius I

Rock face relief

Darius is tall figure (hierarchical proportions), steps on body of rival Guamata with captured rebels

Darius just came into power so he was trying to look cool

Rebels are small and in shackles

Ahuramasda is winged god in middle

Most detailed inscription you can find about war

King (in art)

Unifying figure

Appearance in art changed depending on what area of the empire you were in (e.g. in Egypt, seen as new pharaoh)

Ahuramazda

Royal family devoted to Ahuramazda and maintained order, justice, and truth on the behalf of the god

Persian Empire Administration

Generally effective

Respect for local gods and religious tradition of foreigners within the Empire

Official inscriptions were multilingual for the diverse Empire

Persian Empire (provinces)

Provinces contributed resources, including local products, silver, and skilled labour

Network of Roads

Network of royal roads to ensure communication between the king and the provinces and improve the mobility of the army (main use, but not only use. Also used for commercial purposes)

The Persian Army (Royal Army)

10,000 elite soldiers, called ‘Immortals’ because numbers always at full strength, use long and short range weapons

The Persian Army

Royal Army

For important campaigns, the large army had more non-Persians than ethnic Persians

Satraps would assemble armies of local troops, esp. Infantry with some elite Persian troops, officers and cavalrymen

Hired mercenaries

Persian Army (units)

Units of 1,000 men, divided into smaller units of 100, and then 10

Two Persian Soldiers (“immortals” - no specialized fighting style cuz different types of weapons)

Persian Military Tactics

Long and short range combat

Calvary

Siegecraft and military engineering

Intelligence

Persian Military Tactics (long and short range combat)

Used both bows and arrows as well as spears, axes, and swords

Persian Military Tactics (calvary)

large and important within the battle

Equipped with bows, javelins and spears

In open battle, would weaken opponents before the infantry arrived

Get into bow and spear range, attack, then retreat

Chase disorganised and fleeing enemies

Persian Military Tactics (Siegecraft and military engineering)

very advanced, continuing tradition of Near Eastern warfare

Persian Military Tactics (intelligence)

Used intelligence and negotiation with sympathisers on the enemy side

Persian Military Equipment

Armour, shields, weapons

Persian Military Equipment (armour)

Only a few elite troops had metal breastplates. Mostly they were made from cloth as mobility was more important than passive protection.

Persian Military Equipment (shields)

Very light; oval, crescent, or rectangular shaped

Rectangular shields (called **spara**) could also be planted in ground to provide protection for the archers

Persian Military Equipment (weapons)

short spears, axes, daggers, swords

Bows were main offensive weapon - foot soldiers would weaken enemy first with a bow before moving in to attack at close quarters

Achaemenid Imperial Ideology (royal inscriptions)

Royal inscriptions show the moral and administrative qualities of the ruler and the orderly functioning of the empire under his leadership

Royal Inscriptions (war)

When war is mentioned in royal inscriptions, it’s very generic - statement is that the king was stopping disorder with the guidance of Ahuramazda

(exception: the Behistun relief which showed king stepping on enemy, shows Darius as capable of crushing opposition - Gaumata, shows what he could do to opposition)

Royal Art

The royal administration used mostly images of peace rather than actual images of war - peace was understood to be the direct consequence of war and the victories won by the king

Tomb of Darius I (description)

King Darius I, Ahuramazda, the moon, altar

King is on platform supported by conquered soldiers in his empire, with their typical dress and weapons (Inscriptions says they are not prisoners)

Tomb of Darius I (significance)

Darius acknowledging the contribution of foreigners to the functioning of the Empire

Following kings use same scene on tombs

Tomb of Darius I

Detail of Throne of Darius

Lydia

Greek cities of the east coast of the Aegean were under the influence of Lydia. When Lydia fell, they went under Persian control (not under direct control, but paying tribute and providing support)

Ionian Revolt of the 5th C BCE

Rebellion of the Ionians (Greeks of this area)

6 years long

Only Athens and Eretria sent troops to help after the Ionians asks for help

Greeks take Sardis, the capital of Lydia and burn the town and local temple, which angered Darius

Persian Army (5th C BCE)

Very mobile, light infantry, large and effective cavalry, use of missiles, good at siegecraft

Greek Army (5th C BCE)

Defensive, armoured infantry, little cavalry, hand-to-hand combat, ineffective in siege craft

First Persian Expedition

Darius I sends expeditionary force to take revenge on Athens and Eretria for helping the Ionians

Persians move through Europe, secure land positions with campaign in Thrace in 492 BC

First Persian Expedition (490 BC)

Persians land forces near Eretria, which they besiege, capture, and burn

Then land in Attica, at Marathon. Athens send their army with some allies (only from Plataea because other Greeks refused to come)

Battle of Marathon (beginning)

Athenians attack Persians on the coast, positioned between hills and marshes

Larger Persian force couldn’t outflank them

Battle of Marathon (battle)

Athenians move towards the Persians quickly, they reinforce their wings and enveloped the centre of the Persian forces The Persians were trapped, defeated, and fled to their ships and departed

Battle of Marathon (end)

Athens is ultimately victorious

Burial mound of Athenian dead at Marathon - the war dead seen as heroes

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Burial Mound at Marathon (192 Athenians)

Second Invasion of Greece (year)

480 BC

Second Invasion of Greece (initial trigger)

Xerxes sends out the Persian army in 480 BC - cross the Hellespont and march south with support of their fleet that is supplied by subject areas along the Mediterranean

Second Invasion of Greece (Xerxes)

Son of Darius

Xerxes demands ‘earth and water’ from Greek cities which is really asking for complete submission

Second Invasion of Greece (reason)

Some cities do surrender to Xerxes, others willingly side with Persians to settle scores with enemy Greek cities

Other cities chose to resist and form an alliance. Athens and Sparta are the most prominent members.

Second Invasinon of Greece (Athens and Sparta)

Sparta has the most control (of the anti-Xerxes alliance) even though Athens provides most of the ships

Battle of Thermopylae (reason)

Greeks try to stop the Persians going through the pass of Thermopylae

Battle of Thermopylae (start)

Greeks hold back Persians for three days but have to retreat after the Persians discover a mountain pass that went around the Greek lines

Battle of Thermopylae (end)

A small Spartan force under the King Leonidas tries to slow down the Persians - eventually the King and his 300 knights were killed

The Persians now start the march towards Athens

Xerxes in Athens and the Battle of Salamis (entering Athens)

Persians reach Athens unopposed

Athenians flee to the small island of Salamis, following the advice of **Themistokles**

Xerxes in Athens and the Battle of Salamis (in Athens)

The Persians enter Athens and burn the Acropolis in retaliation for the Greeks burning the temple in Sardis in the Ionian Revolt

Xerxes in Athens and the Battle of Salamis (actual battle)

Naval battle - hundreds of ships lined up in a narrow space BUT the huge number of Persian ships was actually their downfall - the crowded ships damaged each other, while the Greeks were able to maneuver between them

Greeks are victorious

The Second Year of the Persian Invasion of Athens (context)

Xerxes goes back to Persia, but leaves part of the army with his general Mardonius

The Persians had to go back in Winter as campaigns are seasonal in the ancient world

The Second Year of the Persian Invasion of Athens (Mardonius)

Mardonius stayed in Northern Greece for the winter before he moved south, where he burned the whole city of Athens after they wouldn’t accept his peace terms

Mardonius then goes to Boeotia where the terrain is favourable to Persian tactics, pro-Persian Greeks in the area, and waits for the Greeks (battle of Plataea)

Battle of Plataea (set up)

The Greek allied army lead by Spartan Pausanias enter the Boeotian plain and army sets up on the sloping terrain near the city of Plataea

Battle of Plataea (beginning)

Both armies held position until the Greek army tries to reposition themselves and the Persians think they’re retreating and so move into attack

Battle of Plataea (end)

Greeks are victorious, Mardonius is killed, area of Ionia is free

Soon after this battle they destroy Persia at **Mycale**

Remains of a serpent column from Istanbul

Reaction to Victory

The Greeks advertise their victory over the Persians through art (ex: Serpent column)

Remains of a serpent column from Istanbul

Battle of Platea

Column supported a bronze tripod that the Greeks offered in the sanctuary of Apollo at Delphi after the battle

Shows the names of those in the Greek alliance

Delian league

After Persian Wars Greeks organised a league of cities to protect themselves against Persia called the Delian league - soon under Athenian control (rise of Athens will soon cause conflict with Sparta and its allies - aka the Peloponnesian War)

Aftermath of the Persian Wars and its Cultural Effects

Defeat of the Persians marked the end of the Persian Empire’s expansion

Persians now start to meddle with Greek affairs through bribing political leaders and providing money for Greek cities to fight each other

Barbarian

Someone who does not speak Greek (the Greeks share a language and so are united)

The Greeks saw the main difference between them and the Barbarians as being that the Greeks had freedom, allowed them to foster sense of responsibility for community (Persians fought out of fear)

Pentecontor

Standard warship from Dark Ages to the end of the 6th C BC

Warship with 50 oars

Trireme (basics)

Ship with three levels of seated rowers (most difficult position was top, more extreme angle so had to be stronger, got paid more)

Trieme (weaknesses)

Couldn’t carry many supplies - need to land every night for supplies.

Prone to shipwreck in bad weather conditions

Expensive to build, equip, service, and repair

Trieme (significance)

Standard Greek worship for over 2 centuries

Need for wood to build ships causes Athens to conquer area in Northern Greece to get better access to wood

Trieme (crew)

Need large and well trained crew, captain, shipbuilders, etc.

Crew of around 170 people, mostly **Thetes** (lowest class of citizens)

Greek Naval Warfare (ramming)

Ramming becomes the preferred tactic over boarding

Captain trying to maneuver ship to ram side of enemy ship

Line of ships facing the enemy ready to ram the enemy

Greek Sea Battles According to Thucydides

Battle of Sybota

Battle of Rhium

Battle of Sybota

Decks crowded with heavy infantry, archers and javelin-men, old type of naval battle that looked almost like a land battle (shows lack of skill)

No attempt to break the enemy line

Corinthians chase Corcyrans to the shore and pick up the bodies and their shipwrecks

Battle of Rhium (context)

Corinthians were not ready for a naval battle, they were carrying their troops

Form their ships into a tight circle and were not able to maneuver

Battle of Rhium (battle)

Athenians circle them, gradually making the Corinthians get closer and closer, until there was too much disorder

Athenians won, set up trophy

Athens as a Naval Power

Themistokles convinced the Athenians to use the funds from the silver mines to build 200 ships for a war against Aegina

These ships were an asset against the war with Xerxes

Delphic oracle: “build a wooden wall”

Evolution in Greek Warfare in the 5th-4th centuries BC

Wars became long and almost without seasonal intermission

Hoplite battles became more complex and sea battles were frequently decisive.

Phalanx Evolves

Lighter helmets (pileos) and armour: phalanx more mobile and flexible (more affordable to be a hoplite)

Different battle order and simple maneuvers (lighter hoplites are able to accomplish this maneuvers)

Battle of Delium: first use of Greek tactical warfare

Thebans strengthen one part of their battle line and use cavalry to support the weaker side

Match their best soldiers with the enemies best soldiers, staggered approach

Professionalization

Get first ‘generals’ at this time (specialised military experts) - some hired out by foreign powers

Junior officers and trainers (expert soldiers)

Semi-professional soldiers who trained all year

Mercenaries (professionalization)

Very effective but considered outsiders and expendable Career that could be undertaken by all class-levels

Historian Xenophon was a mercenary (wrote about experience in his ‘Anabasis’)

Non-hoplite fighters

Cavalry and light infantry to support phalanx

Engineers and artillery for siege warcraft

“New style” of peltast

Soldiers equipped with lighter and smaller shields and longer spears

The Greek Cavalry

Carried javelins, one-edged swords, lighter spears

Used for reconnaissance, raids, etc.

Horses had to presented every year to be fit for the cavalry

Owners received a sum of money as loan for the use of the horse and daily salary for upkeep

The Rise of Macedon

King Philip II becomes king in 359 BC - responsible for military reforms, turns Macedon into power of Greek world

Takes control of Greece after Battle of Chaeronea

Battle of Chaeronea

Macedon against Athens and Thebes, 338 BC

Macedonian society (people)

Most of population were farmers and herders

Macedonian society (upper class)

Aristocracy in upper ranks of military, esp. the cavalry. Called the “companions”.

Young sons of upper class became royal pages.

Macedonian society (king - control)

Hereditary position, claimed divine descent, lead army in the front line, controlled farmland, forests, gold and silver mines

Macedonian society (king - power)

Led the army fighting from the front line

Was an assembly of people that could ratify decisions and acclaim new king, but king not bound by their decisions

Power of king considered barbaric by the southern Greeks

The reforms of Philip II (pre-reform)

Philip II practically overhauled the Macedonian army

Prior to Philips’ reforms the Macedonian infantry was poorly equipped and trained

Their cavalry had always been well trained (companions)

The reforms of Philip II (equipment)

Philip equipped his infantry with helmets (Phrygian type), greaves, Sarissa, and Macedonian shields. All the equipment was paid for and made by the state (MAK on spear butt).

Sarissa

Long pikes

Macedonian Shields

Macedonian shields were smaller and lighter than the Greek hoplon, and allowed the macedonian infantry to hold their sarissa with both hands since the shield had only one handle.

Macedonian Phalanx

Macedonian troops could form a new type of Phalanx (16 ranks deep and very compact) that took advantage of the length of their spears to reach the enemy before they could be in range to attack them

Macedonian Phalanx (4-5 ranks)

Troops in the first 4-5 ranks could reach the enemy with their sarrissas

Far more penetrating power since they could hold the sarissa with both hands