AP Lang Vocab

Active Voice

The subject of the sentence performs the action. This is a more direct and preferred style of writing in most cases. “Anthony drove while Toni searched for the house.”

Passive Voice

when the subject of the sentence receives the action. “The car was driven by Anthony.” Passive voice is often overused, resulting in lifeless writing. When possible, try to use active voice.

Allusion

A reference to a well-known work of art, literature, or music within another work of art, literature or music. “John enjoyed his role as the good Samaritan until he received the bill for repairing Joyce’s car.”

Alter-ego

A character that is used by the author to speak the author’s own thoughts; when an author speaks directly to the audience through a character. In Shakespeare’s last play, The Tempest, Shakespeare talks to his audience about his own upcoming retirement, through the main character in the play, Prospero. Do not confuse with persona.

Anecdote

A brief recounting of a relevant episode. Anecdotes are often inserted into fictional or non fictional texts as a way of developing a point or injecting humor.

Antecedent

The word, phrase, or clause referred to by a pronoun. “If I could command the wealth of all the world by lifting my finger, I would not pay such a price for it.” An AP question might read: "What is the antecedent for "it"?

Classicism

Art or literature characterized by a realistic view of people and the world; sticks to traditional themes and structures (see romanticism).

Comic Relief

when a humorous scene is inserted into a serious story, in order to lighten the mood somewhat. The “gatekeeper scene” in Macbeth is an example of comic relief.

Diction

Word choice, particularly as an element of style. Different types of words have significant effects on meaning. An essay written in academic diction would be much less colorful, but perhaps more precise than street slang.

Colloquial (sub of diction)

Ordinary or familiar type of conversation. A “colloquialism” is a common or familiar type of saying, similar to an adage or an aphorism.

Connotation (sub of diction)

Rather than the dictionary definition (denotation), the associations suggested by a word. Implied meaning rather than literal meaning. (For example, “policeman,” “cop,” and “The Man” all denote the same literal meaning of police officer, but each has a different connotation.)

Denotation (sub of diction)

The literal, explicit meaning of a word, without its connotations.

Jargon (sub of diction)

The diction used by a group which practices a similar profession or activity. Lawyers
speak using particular jargon, as do soccer players.

Vernacular (sub of diction)

1. Language or dialect of a particular country. 2. Language or dialect of a regional clan or group. 3. Plain everyday speech

Didactic

A term used to describe fiction, nonfiction or poetry that teaches a specific lesson or moral or provides a model of correct behavior or thinking.

Adage (sub of didactic)

A folk saying with a lesson. “A rolling stone gathers no moss.”
Similar to aphorism and colloquialism.

Allegory (sub of didactic)

A story, fictional or non fictional, in which characters, things, and events represent qualities or concepts. The interaction of these characters, things, and events is meant to reveal an abstraction or a truth. Animal Farm, by George Orwell, is an allegory.

Aphorism (sub of didactic)

A terse statement which expresses a general truth or moral principle. An aphorism can be a memorable summation of the author's point. Ben Franklin wrote many of these in Poor Richard's Almanac, such as “God helps them that help themselves,” and “A watched pot never boils.”

Ellipsis

The deliberate omission of a word or phrase from prose done for effect by the author. “The whole day, rain, torrents of rain.” The term ellipsis is related to ellipse, which is the three periods used to show omitted text in a quotation.

Euphemism

using a mild, offensive word in place of one that might evoke a stronger reaction / the use—in place of the blunt term for something disagreeable, terrifying, or offensive—of a term that is vaguer, more roundabout, or less colloquial. “Physically challenged,” in place of “crippled.” Sometimes a euphemism is used to exaggerate correctness to add humor. “Vertically challenged” in place of “short.” “ using “pass away” in place of “die””

Figurative Language

“Figurative Language” is the opposite of “Literal Language.” Literal language is writing that makes complete sense when you take it at face value. “Figurative Language” is the opposite: writing that is not meant to be taken literally.

Analogy (sub of fig lang)

a comparison in which the relationship between two things is established by comparing it to a similar relationship between two other things. “America is to the world as the hippo is to the jungle.” Similes and metaphors are sometimes also analogies.

Hyperbole (sub of fig lang)

Exaggeration. “My mother will kill me if I am late.”

Idiom (sub fig lang)

A common, often used expression that doesn’t make sense if you take it literally. “I got
chewed out by my coach.”

Metaphor (sub fig lang)

an imaginative comparison of two unlike things that does not use either like or as. “Her mother’s love was a lighthouse in the storm of disappointment.“ “My feet are popsicles.” An extended metaphor is when the metaphor is continued later in the written work. If I continued to call my feet “my popsicles” in later paragraphs, that would be an extended metaphor. A particularly elaborate extended metaphor is called using conceit.

Metonymy (sub fig lang)

Replacing an actual word or idea, with a related word or concept. “Relations between London and Washington have been strained,” does not literally mean relations between the two cities, but between the leaders of The United States and England. Metonymy is often used with body parts: “I could not understand his tongue,” means his language or his speech.

Synecdoche (sub of metonymy and fig lang)

A kind of metonymy when a whole is represented by naming one of its parts, or vice versa. “The cattle rancher owned 500 head.” “Check out my new wheels.”

Simile (sub fig lang)

Using words such as “like” or “as” to make a direct comparison between two very different things. “My feet are so cold they feel like popsicles.”

Synesthesia (sub fig lang)

a description involving a “crossing of the senses.” Examples: “A purplish scent
filled the room.” “I was deafened by his brightly-colored clothing.”

Foreshadowing

When an author gives hints about what will occur later in a story.

Genre

The major category into which a literary work fits.

Gothic

Writing characterized by gloom, mystery, fear and/or death. Also refers to an architectural style of the middle ages, often seen in cathedrals of this period.

Imagery

Word or words that create a picture in the reader's mind. Usually this involves the five senses. Authors often use imagery in conjunction with metaphors, similes, or figures of speech.

Invective

A long, emotionally violent, attack using strong, abusive language.

Irony

When the opposite of what you expect to happen does.

Verbal irony

When you say something and mean the opposite/something different. For example, if your gym teacher wants you to run a mile in eight minutes or faster, but calls it a "walk in the park" it would be verbal irony. If your voice tone is bitter, it's called sarcasm.

Dramatic Irony

when the audience knows more about facts or events in a text or play than the characters do. For example, in many horror movies, we (the audience) know who the killer is, which the victim-to-be has no idea who is doing the slaying. Sometimes the character trusts the killer completely when (ironically) he/she shouldn't.

Situational irony

when events turn out the opposite way from what would be expected. (For example, Johnny spent two hours planning on sneaking into the movie theater and missed the movie. When he finally did manage to sneak inside he found out that kids were admitted free that day).

Juxtaposition

placement of two (usually dissimilar) things side by side for emphasis. Authors often use juxtaposition of ideas or examples in order to make a point.(For example, an author my juxtapose the average day of a typical American with that of someone in the third world in order to make a point of social commentary).

Motif

an element—a type of incident, device, or idea—which recurs frequently in a literary work to develop a theme. In To Kill a Mockingbird, the idea that “you never really understand another person until you consider things from his or her point of view” is a motif, because the idea is brought up several times over the course of the novel.

Oxymoron

When apparently contradictory terms are grouped together and suggest a paradox – “wise fool,” “eloquent silence,” “jumbo shrimp.”

Paradox

A seemingly contradictory situation which is actually true.“You can't get a job without
experience, and you can't get experience without getting a job.”

Parallelism

(Also known as parallel structure or balanced sentences.) Sentence construction which places equal grammatical constructions near each other, or repeats similar grammatical or syntactical patterns. Parallelism is used to add emphasis, organization, rhythm, or sometimes pacing to writing. “Cinderella swept the floor, dusted the mantle, and beat the rugs.”

Anaphora (sub parallelism)

Repetition of a word, phrase, or clause at the beginning of two or more sentences or clauses in a row. This is a deliberate form of repetition and helps make the writer's point more coherent. “I came, I saw, I conquered.”

Chiasmus (sub parallelism)

When the same words are used twice in succession, but the second time, the order of the words is reversed. “Fair is foul and foul is fair.” “When the going gets tough, the tough get going.” Also called antimetabole.

Antithesis (sub parallelism)

Two opposite or contrasting words, phrases, or clauses, or even ideas, with parallel structure. “It was the best of times, it was the worst of times”

Zeugma (syllepsis) (sub parallelism)

When a single word governs or modifies two or more other words, and the meaning of the first word must change for each of the other words it governs or modifies. “The butler killed the lights, and then the mistress.” “I quickly dressed myself and the salad.”

Parenthetical Idea

Parentheses are used to set off an idea from the rest of the sentence. It is almost considered an aside...a whisper, and should be used sparingly for effect, rather than repeatedly. Parentheses can also be used to set off dates and numbers. “In a short time (and the time is getting shorter by the gallon) America will be out of oil.”

Parody

An exaggerated imitation of a serious work for humorous purposes. It borrows words or phrases from an original, and pokes fun at it. This is also a form of allusion, since it is referencing a previous text, event, etc. The Simpsons often parody Shakespeare plays. Saturday Night Live also parodies famous persons and events. Do not confuse with satire.

Persona

The fictional mask or narrator that tells a story. Do not confuse with alter-ego.

Assonance

The repetition of identical or similar vowel sounds.
“From the molten-golden notes”

Consonance

The repetition of the same consonant sound at the end of words or within words.
“Some late visitor entreating entrance at my chamber door"

Onomatopoeia

The use of a word which imitates or suggests the sound that the thing makes.
Snap, rustle, boom, murmur

Internal rhyme

When a line of poetry contains a rhyme within a single line.
“To the rhyming and the chiming of the bells!”

Slant rhyme

When a poet creates a rhyme, but the two words do not rhyme exactly – they are merely similar.
“I sat upon a stone, / And found my life has gone.”

End rhyme

When the last word of two different lines of poetry rhyme.
“Roses are red, violets are blue, / Sugar is sweet, and so are you.”

Rhyme scheme

The pattern of a poem’s end rhymes. For example, the following lines have a rhymeschemeof ababcdcd:
Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day? a
Thou art more lovely and more temperate. b
Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May. a
And summer’s lease hath all too short a date. b
Sometime too hot the eye of heaven shines c
And often is his gold complexion dimmed d
And every fair from fair sometime declines c
By chance or nature’s changing course untrimmed d

Meter

A regular pattern to the syllables in lines of poetry.

Free verse

Poetry that doesn’t have much meter or rhyme.

Iambic pentameter

Poetry that is written in lines of 10 syllables, alternating stressed and unstressed syllables.
“Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day?”

Sonnet

A 14 line poem written in iambic pentameter. Usually divided into three quatrains and a couplet

Polysyndeton

When a writer creates a list of items which are all separated by conjunctions. Normally, a conjunction is used only before the last item in a list. Examples of polysyndeton: “I walked the dog, and fed the cat, and milked the cows.” “Or if a soul touch any unclean thing, whether it be a carcass of an unclean beast, or a carcass of unclean cattle, or the carcass of unclean creeping things...he also shall be unclean.” Polysyndeton is often used to slow down the pace of the writing and/or add an authoritative tone.

Romanticism

Art or literature characterized by an idealistic, perhaps unrealistic view of people and the world, and an emphasis on nature. Does not rely on traditional themes and structures (see classicism).

Sarcasm

A generally bitter comment meant to harm or ridicule someone or something that is ironically or satirically worded. However, not all satire and irony are sarcastic. It is the bitter, mocking tone that separates sarcasm from mere verbal irony or satire.

Satire

A work that reveals a critical attitude toward some element of life to a humorous effect. It targets human vices and follies, or social institutions and conventions. Good satire usually has three layers: serious on the surface; humorous when you discover that it is satire instead of reality; and serious when you discern the underlying point of the author. / an ironic, sarcastic, or witty composition that claims to argue for something, but actually argues against it

Appositive

A word or group of words placed beside a noun or noun substitute to supplement its
meaning. “Bob, the lumber yard worker, spoke with Judy, an accountant from the city.”

Clause

A grammatical unit that contains both a subject and a verb. An independent clause expresses a complete thought and can stand alone as a sentence. A dependent, or subordinate clause cannot stand alone as a sentence and must be accompanied by an independent clause. (Example: “Other than baseball, football is my favorite sport.” In this sentence, the independent clause is “football is my favorite sport” and the dependent clause is “Other than baseball.”

Balanced sentence

A sentence in which two parallel elements are set off against each other like equal weights on a scale. Both parts are parallel grammatically. “If a free society cannot help the many who are poor, it cannot save the few who are rich.” Also called parallelism.

Complex sentence

Contains only one independent clause and at least one dependent clause.

Cumulative / loose sentence

When the writer begins with an independent clause, then adds subordinate elements. “He doubted whether he could ever again appear before an audience, his confidence broken, his limbs shaking, his collar wet with perspiration.” Main clause comes first. The opposite construction is called a periodic sentence.

Periodic Sentence

When the main idea is not completed until the end of the sentence. The writer begins with subordinate elements and postpones the main clause. “His confidence broken, his limbs shaking, his collar wet with perspiration, he doubted whether he could ever again appear before an audience.” The opposite construction is called a cumulative sentence.

Declarative sentence

States an idea. It does not give a command or request, nor does it ask a question. “The ball is round.”

Imperative sentence

Issues a command. “Kick the ball.”

Interrogative sentence

Sentences incorporating interrogative pronouns (what, which,
who, whom, and whose). “To whom did you kick the ball?”

Thesis

The sentence or groups of sentences that directly expresses the author's opinion, purpose, meaning, or proposition. It should be short and clear. (also see argument)

Understatement

The ironic minimizing of fact, understatement presents something as less significant than it is. The effect can frequently be humorous. “Our defense played valiantly, and held the other team to merely eight touchdowns in the first quarter.”

Litotes (sub understatement)

special form of ​understatement​ in which something is asserted by denying its opposite. Depending on the tone and context of the usage, litotes either retains the effect of understatement (Hitting that telephone pole certainly didn't do your car any good) or becomes an intensifying expression (The flavors of the mushrooms, herbs, and spices combine to make the dish not at all disagreeable).

Premises

Statements offered as reasons to support a conclusion are premises.

Ethos (credibility)

means being convinced by the credibility of the author. We tend to believe people whom we respect. In an appeal to ethos, a writer tries to convince the audience the he or she someone worth listening to, in other words an authority on the subject, as well as someone who is likable and worthy of respect. (Also see the fallacy of appeal to authority.) An argument that relies too heavily on ethos, without any corroborating logos, can become a fallacy.

Pathos (emotional)

means persuading by appealing to the reader's emotions. (Also see the fallacy of appeal to emotion). An argument that relies too much on emotion, without any corroborating logos, can become a fallacy.

Logos (logical)

means persuading by the use of reasoning, using true premises and valid arguments. This is generally considered the strongest form of persuasion.

Concession

Accepting at least part or all of an opposing viewpoint. Often used to make one’s own argument stronger by demonstrating that one is willing to accept what is obviously true and reasonable, even if it is presented by the opposition. Sometimes also called multiple perspectives because the author is accepting more than one position as true. Sometimes a concession is immediately followed by a rebuttal of the concession.

Conditional statement

an if-then statement and consists of two parts, an antecedent and a consequent. “If you studied hard, then you will pass the test.” Conditional statements are often used as premises in an argument:

Deductive argument

An argument in which it is thought that the premises provide a guarantee of the truth of the conclusion. In a deductive argument, the premises are intended to provide support for the conclusion that is so strong that, if the premises are true, it would be impossible for the conclusion to be false. (also see inductive argument)

Fallacy

an unreliable piece of reasoning

Ad hominem (sub fallacy)

Latin for "against the man". Personally attacking your opponents instead of their arguments. It is an argument that appeals to emotion rather than reason, feeling rather than intellect.

Appeal to authority (sub fallacy)

The claim that because somebody famous supports an idea, the idea must be right. This fallacy is often used in advertising.

Appeal to the bandwagon (sub fallacy)

The claim, as evidence for an idea, that many people believe it, or used to believe it, or do it. In the 1800's there was a widespread belief that bloodletting cured sickness. All of these people were not just wrong, but horribly wrong, because in fact it made people sicker. Clearly, the popularity of an idea is no guarantee that it's right.

Appeal to emotion (sub fallacy)

An attempt to replace a logical argument with an appeal to the audience’s emotions. Common emotional appeals are an appeal to sympathy, an appeal to revenge, an appeal to patriotism – basically any emotion can be used as an appeal.

Bad analogy (sub fallacy)

Claiming that two situations are highly similar, when they aren't. “We have pure food and drug laws regulating what we put in our bodies; why can't we have laws to keep musicians from giving us filth for the mind?”

Cliche thinking (sub fallacy)

Using as evidence a well-known saying, as if it is proven, or as if it has no exceptions. “I say: ‘America: love it or leave it.’ Anyone who disagrees with anything our country does must hate America. So maybe they should just move somewhere else.”

False Cause (sub fallacy)

Assuming that because two things happened, the first one caused the second one. (Sequence is not causation.) “Before women got the vote, there were no nuclear weapons. Therefore women’s suffrage must have led to nuclear weapons.”

Hasty generalization (sub fallacy)

This is a conclusion based on insufficient or biased evidence. In other words, you are rushing to a conclusion before you have all the relevant facts. “My uncle didn’t go to college, and he makes a lot of money. So, people who don’t go to college do just as well as those who do.”

Non Sequitur (sub fallacy)

A conclusion that does not follow from its premises; an invalid argument. “Hinduism is one of the world’s largest religious groups. It is also one of the world’s oldest religions. Hinduism helps millions of people lead happier, more productive lives. Therefore the principles of Hinduism must be true.”

Slippery slope

The assumption that once started, a situation will continue to its most extreme possible outcome. “If you drink a glass of wine, then you’ll soon be drinking all the time, and then you’ll become a homeless alcoholic.”

Inductive argument

An argument in which it is thought that the premises provide reasons supporting the probable truth of the conclusion. In an inductive argument, the premises are intended only to be so strong that, if they are true, then it is unlikely that the conclusion is false. (also see deductive argument)

Sound argument

A deductive argument is said to be sound if it meets two conditions: First, that the line of reasoning from the premises to the conclusion is valid. Second, that the premises are true.

Unstated premises

Not every argument is fully expressed. Sometimes premises or even conclusions are left unexpressed. If one argues that Rover is smart because all dogs are smart, he is leaving unstated that Rover is a dog. Here the unstated premise is no problem; indeed it would probably be obvious in context. But sometimes unstated premises are problematic, particularly if two parties in a discussion are making differing assumptions.

Valid argument

An argument is valid if the conclusion logically follows from the premises.
The following argument is valid, because it is impossible for the premises to be true and the conclusion to nevertheless be false. We do not know if the argument is sound, because we do not know if the premises are true or not.

Inductive reasoning

takes a specific representative case or facts and then draws generalizations or conclusions from them. Inductive reasoning must be based on a sufficient amount of reliable evidence. In other words, the facts you draw on must fairly represent the larger situation or population.