I&CD Chapter 12

Concrete Operational Stage

Piaget’s stage from about ages 6–11 characterized by logical thinking about concrete objects.

Operations

Mental actions that follow logical rules.

Conservation (Middle Childhood)

Understanding that quantity remains the same despite changes in appearance.

Decentration

Ability to consider multiple aspects of a situation at once.

Reversibility

Understanding that actions can be mentally reversed.

Seriation

Ability to arrange items in a logical sequence.

Classification

Ability to group objects based on shared characteristics.

Concrete Logic

Logical reasoning applied to real, tangible objects rather than abstract ideas.

Vygotsky and Culture

View that cognitive development depends on social interaction and cultural tools.

Direct Instruction

Teaching method involving explicit guidance from a teacher.

Mentoring

Learning through guidance from a more skilled individual.

Neuroscience

The scientific study of the brain and nervous system.

Executive Function (Middle Childhood)

Improved ability to plan, focus attention, and regulate behavior.

Automatization

Performing skills quickly and effortlessly through practice.

Knowledge Base

Accumulated information that supports learning and problem-solving.

Control Processes

Mental strategies used to organize and regulate thinking.

Memory Strategies

Techniques such as rehearsal and organization used to improve recall.

Theory of Mind (Middle Childhood)

More advanced understanding of others’ thoughts and intentions.

Vocabulary Growth

Continued expansion of word knowledge during middle childhood.

Pragmatics (Middle Childhood)

Adjusting language use to social context and audience.

English Language Learners (ELL)

Children learning English in addition to another language.

Immersion Education

Teaching academic content entirely in a second language.

Bilingual Education

Instruction using two languages.

English as a Second Language (ESL)

Instruction designed to teach English to non-native speakers.

Language and Poverty

Limited language exposure associated with reduced vocabulary development.

Hidden Curriculum

Unspoken lessons about norms, values, and expectations taught in schools.

Teacher Expectations

Beliefs teachers hold that influence student performance.

Educational Disparities

Differences in educational outcomes linked to income, race, or ethnicity.