AP Psych WC-4

Memory

the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information

Explicit Memory

retention of facts and experiences from long-term memory that one can consciously know and “declare”

• Requires attention and conscious effort

Semantic Memory

Facts and general knowledge (Washington was the first president)

Episodic Memory

Experienced events such as a family trip

Implicit Memory

Retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations in long-term memory independent of conscious recollection

Automatic Processing

Unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time and frequency, and well-learned info (word meanings)

Procedural Memory

A type of long-term implicit memory for knowing how to perform tasks, actions, and skills

Prospective Memory

the ability to remember to perform a future intention

Parallel Processing

Considering many aspects of a problem simultaneously

Long-Term Potentiation

Strengthening of synapses, an increase in a cell’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; a neural basis for learning and memory

Multi-Store Model

Sensory Memory

The immediate, very brief recording of sensory information (usually a fraction of a second) in the memory system

Long-term memory

relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system

Working Memory Model

Visuospatial Sketchpad

A component of the working memory model which stores and processes information in a visual or spatial form. (Navigation)

Phonological Loop

A component of the working memory model that deals with spoken and written material

Levels of Processing Model

Structural Processing

Encoding based on the physical qualities of something

Phonemic Processing

Processing the sound of something

Semantic Processing

When we encode the meaning of a word and relate it to similar words with similar meaning

Encode

put in the new information

Store

organize the information

Retrieve

pull out the information

Visual Encoding

Involves using visual cues to store information and acoustic means using sound or language to store information

Acoustic Encoding

Involves using auditory cues to store information. Includes linking sound characteristic such as pitch and frequency to the data being stored

Semantic Encoding

Involves using meaning or context to store information. Store meaning along with the term, date or concept to make it more memorable

Elaborative Encoding

Involves connecting new info to prior knowledge to remember it. Contrasted to rote learning where facts are remember in isolation

Tactile Encoding

Refers to using phys. sensations and touch to store info

Organizational Encoding

organizing info into groups or categories

Mnemonic Devices

Processes that aid in encoding info into working and long-term memory

Method of Loci

Using a familiar environment and assigning information to certain locations (encoding), then retrieving the information by “walking” through the location

Chunking

Breaking information into smaller “chunks” in order to recall it easier

Spacing Effect

More information is remembered through distributed practice (1/2 hours over 8 days) rather than massed practice (4 hours on a singular day)

Testing Effect

testing information and then testing your knowledge increases the amount of information retained.

Serial position effect

An items position in a list has on how well it is recalled

Short-Term Memory

memory that holds a few items briefly before the information is stored or forgotten

Working Memory

Builds off of short-term memory but includes our active processing, as our brain makes sense of incoming information and links it with stored memories

Hippocampus

A neural center located in the limbic system critical for processing new memories

Structures that build explicit memory and assist in memory consolidation

• brain’s process of stabilizing and strengthening recent memory traces into long-term memories

Hippocampus, amygdala, and frontal lobe

Structures that build up implicit memory

Basal ganglia and cerebellum

Basal Ganglia

Responsible for the formation of motor and implicit memory, controlling things like voluntary motor movement , procedural learning, and routine

• Because of this, it also believed to be associated with habit-forming such as teeth grinding (bruxism), OCD, and addiction

Cerebellum

Responsible for the timing and execution of learned, skilled motor movements

Flash-bulb memory

A clear, sustained long-term memory of an emotionally significant moment or event.

Hippocampus Damage to the Left 

Verbal information recall

Hippocampus Damage to the RightA 

visual memory and spatial navigation

Amnesia

Partial or complete loss of memory. Either temporary or permanent, it may be due to physiological factors such as injury or disease

Anterograde Amnesia

Inability to form new memories

Retrograde Amnesia

Inability to retrieve memories of the past

Source Amnesia

Forgetting where/who you acquired a piece of information from

Infantile Amnesia

Inability to remember or early childhood (usually caused by lack of language)

Alzheimer’s Disease

A progressive neurodegenerative illness that destroys memory and other mental functions, primarily causing memory loss, confusion, and general cognitive decline

• Connected to lack of ACh

Recall

Retrieving information that is not currently in your conscious awareness but that was learned at an earlier time

• FRQ

Recognition

Identifying items previously learned

• MCQ

Context Dependent Memory

The phenomenon where recalling info is easier when the surrounding environment or sit. is the same during both the initial encoding and the later retrieval of the memory

Mood Congruent Memory

The tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad emotional state

State-Dependent Memory

The phenomenon where memory recall is enhanced when an individual is in the same physiological state as when they originally encoded the information

Retrieval Cues

Associate with it other bits of information about your surroundings, mood, seating position

Forgetting Curve

Shows that memory retention decreases rapidly after a learning event, but the rate slows over time

Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

We know we know the term, name, etc, we just can’t come up with it

Encoding Failure

Much of what we sense we never notice, and what we fail to encode, we will never remember

Storage Decay

Memory for novel information fades quickly, then levels out

Retrieval Failure

Inability to recall info from long-term memory even though it is stored there

Proactive Interference

Procures the past

• If you buy a new combo lock, your old combination may interfere with your retrieval of the new one,

Retroactive Interference

Retroactive remembers recent

• Become so used to a new remix of a song that you forget what the original sounds like

Misinformation Effect

Incorporating misleading info into memory

Intelligence

The mental quality encompassing the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations

General Intelligence/ g Factor

General intelligence is at the heart of all our intelligent behavior

• He noted that those who score high in one area, such as verbal intelligence, typically score higher than average in other areas, such as spatial or reasoning ability

Thurstone

Opponent of Spearman’s “g” who gave 56 different tests to people and mathematically identified seven clusters of primary mental abilities (word fluency, verbal comprehension, spatial ability, perceptual speed, numerical ability, inductive reasoning, and memory). Accidentally proved “g” by showing those who was good in one area were good in others

Multiple Intelligences

Howard Gardner identified eight relatively independent intelligences, including the verbal and mathematical aptitudes assessed by standardizes tests.

Triarchic Theory

Robert Sternberg agreed with Gardner that there is more to success than traditional intelligence and that we have multiple intelligences. But Sternberg’s triarchic theory proposes three, not eight or nine, intelligences

• Analytical

• Creative

• Practical 

Crystalized Intelligence

Our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age

• Increases with age

Fluid Intelligence

Our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease with age, especially during late adulthood

• Decreases with age

Fixed Mindset

The belief that intelligence and abilities are innate- you’re either born with them or you’re not

Growth Mindset

The belief that intelligence and abilities can be developed through effort and learning

Stereotype Threat

Decreases performance due to fear of conforming a negative stereotype

Stereotype Lift

Increases performance by allowing individuals to feel superior to members of negatively stereotyped groups

Intelligence Quotient

(Mental Age/ Chronological age) *100

• Historical use was to assess school children

• Still used for many educational services

Binet-Simon Scale

The og. IQ test, designed for school children

Stanford-Binet

Built off of original Binet test, focused on children/adolescents, provides a general score

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale

Specifically for adults (ages 16-90), provides more detailed subscores

Psychometric Principles

Standardization

• Uniformity

Reliability

• Consistency

Validity

• Accuracy

Socio-cultural Responsiveness

• Freedom from bias

Standardization

Procedures must be uniform

Environment: Controlled and consistent 

Pretested standardization sample acts as control

Instructions everyone takes the test the same way

Questions: Same types of question

Scoring: fair scoring procedures

Test Retest

Same test on two occasions

• Measures stability over time by correlating scores from the same test given to the same group at two different times

Split-Half

Two equal halves

• Measures internal consistency by correlating two randomly selected halves of a single test given at one time

Content Validity

The degree to which a test or measurement covers all the important aspects of a specific domain or construct

Construct Validity

The extent to which a test measures the underlying theoretical concept (the “construct”) it is supposed to measure

Criterion Validity

The extent to which a test’s scores correlate with a known, concrete outcome or “criterion” that the test is meant to measure

Predictive Validity

A specific type of criterion validity that assesses how well a measure can predict a future outcome or behavior

Flynn Effect

IQ scores across much of the world have generally increased over time

• Education, health care, nutrition, technology

Discrepancies in IQ

Differences within groups, interpretation bias, poverty, discrimination, inequalities

Achievement

Current measure of understanding

Aptitude

Future performance

When Amy was seven years of age, she had a babysitter from France. During this time Amy learned to speak a little French. Years later, when Amy got to college, she signed up for a beginning French class. Amy learned the material in her French class much more quickly than her classmates did. Amy’s rapid learning was most likely due to

Implicit Memory

Shallow processing involves which of the following?

Encoding information based on its structure or appearance

The moment you look up a phone number and immediately dial it, the number is held in which temporary storage system?

Working Memory

Which of the following scenarios best demonstrates the role of context effects in memory?

Amy studied for a vocabulary test in the same classroom and at the same time of day as the normal class, and she performed better on the test than students who studied in different classrooms under different conditions.

A corporation created what they referred to as an “intelligence assessment” to give to people who are applying for jobs with their company, which sells medical equipment. The assessment asked questions about popular culture, sports, and historical events that occurred in the United States. Which of the following might explain why the assessment results did not give the company a diverse pool of final candidates?

The assessment lacked validity by only asking about United States cultural and historic topics.

The hypothesis that intelligence is in part inherited is best supported by the fact that the IQ correlation for

pairs of identical twins is greater than for pairs of fraternal twins

Research on intelligence tests must be especially mindful of ethical principles related to confidentiality of data. A major reason for this is best described by which of the following?

Intelligence test scores have been used to determine access to opportunities such as jobs and education.

Henry took an intelligence test and scored lower than he thought he should. He kept retaking the test, but he kept getting about the same score each time. This series of events indicates that the test was

reliable