Political Science Test

Australian Ballot

The government-printed and distributed secret ballot used across the United States to ensure privacy and prevent bias or corruption in elections

Help America Vote Act (HAVA) of 2002

A federal law passed after the 2000 election to fund states' transition from punch-card to electronic voting and set a 2005 compliance deadline

Party-Column Ballot

A ballot that lists all candidates of a single political party in one column

Office-Block Ballot

A ballot that lists all candidates by office

Absentee Voting

A method allowing registered voters to cast ballots by mail before Election Day due to travel

Voting by Mail

A process where ballots are mailed to all registered voters and returned by mail or drop box

Bush v. Gore (2000)

The Supreme Court decision that ended the Florida recount dispute and effectively decided the 2000 presidential election

Primary Election

The election held before a general election to determine each party’s nominee for office

Open Primary

A primary election where any registered voter can participate

Closed Primary

A primary where only voters registered with a political party can vote in that party’s election

Caucus

A meeting of party members to select delegates who will support specific candidates at a national convention

Super Tuesday

A major primary day in early March when many states

General Election

The election held in November to decide which candidates will hold office

Runoff Election

A second election held between the top two vote-getters when no candidate receives a majority

Instant Runoff (Ranked Choice) Voting

A system where voters rank candidates and the lowest is eliminated until one achieves a majority

Referendum

A statewide vote where citizens approve or reject laws proposed by the legislature

Initiative

A process where citizens propose laws or constitutional amendments through petitions to be voted on by the public

Recall Election

A vote allowing citizens to remove an elected official from office before their term ends

First-Past-The-Post System

An electoral system in which the candidate with the most votes wins

Double Ballot (Runoff) System

A system like France’s where a second election occurs if no candidate wins a majority in the first round

Alternative Vote System

The ranked-choice voting method used in Australia where the lowest-ranked candidates are eliminated until a majority is achieved

527 Organization

A tax-exempt political group that raises money for political activities and must disclose spending if it engages in electioneering communications

501(c)(4) Organization

A social welfare nonprofit that can participate in limited political campaigning without disclosing donors

Political Action Committee (PAC)

A group that raises and donates money to influence elections

Super PAC

An organization that can raise and spend unlimited funds independently to advocate for or against candidates but cannot coordinate directly with campaigns

Get Out The Vote (GOTV)

A campaign effort aimed at registering voters and ensuring supporters actually cast ballots

Education and Voting

Higher education levels are strongly correlated with higher voter turnout

Age and Voting

Older citizens are significantly more likely to vote than younger ones

Professionalization of Campaigns

The shift from volunteer-driven to expert-managed campaigns using data

Campaign Consultant

A paid professional who manages campaign strategy

Electoral College

The constitutional system in which 538 electors formally cast votes for president and vice president

Penny Press

Cheap newspapers of the 1830s funded by advertising that broadened readership and access to political information

Yellow Journalism

Sensational and exaggerated news reporting in the late 1800s that prioritized sales over accuracy

Muckraking

Investigative journalism exposing government or corporate corruption

Traditional Media

Legacy outlets like newspapers

New Media

Modern digital outlets like websites

Functions of the Media

To inform

Framing

The media’s ability to influence how audiences interpret an issue by presenting it from a particular perspective

Priming

When media coverage makes certain issues more important in evaluating politicians and policies

Agenda Setting

The process through which media highlight which public issues deserve government attention

Media Consolidation

The merging of multiple outlets under large corporations

Federal Communications Commission (FCC)

The government agency that regulates broadcast

Telecommunications Act of 1996

The law that deregulated the communications industry and allowed greater cross-ownership of media outlets

Digital Divide

The gap between those with easy access to technology and those without

Web 2.0 Election of 2008

The first campaign to successfully leverage social media—Barack Obama’s—to mobilize voters

News Aggregators

Websites and apps that compile headlines

E-Campaigning

The use of the Internet to raise funds

Big Data and Microtargeting

Using large datasets and algorithms to tailor political messages to individual voter preferences

Cyber Cascade

The rapid viral spread of information

E-Petition

An online form used to gather digital signatures supporting a policy or cause

Hacktivism

The hacking or digital sabotage of files or systems to promote political or social goals

Macro-Protesting

Large-scale activism that begins on social media and grows into widespread real-world movements

E-Government

The use of the Internet to deliver government information and services to citizens to improve transparency and efficiency

Election Interference (2016)

Russian officials executed a covert plan to influence the outcome of the U.S. presidential election

Reapportionment

The reallocation of seats in the House of Representatives among states after each census

Redistricting

The redrawing of congressional district boundaries within states following reapportionment

Gerrymandering

Drawing district lines to favor one political party

Majority-Minority District

A district drawn to include a majority of minority voters to enhance minority representation in Congress

Congressional Terms

House members serve two-year terms

Senators serve six-year terms with one-third of the chamber up for election every two years

Seventeenth Amendment

The 1913 amendment that established direct election of U.S. senators by the people

Incumbency Advantage

The tendency for current officeholders to win reelection due to name recognition

Enumerated Powers of Congress

Constitutional powers including taxation

Necessary and Proper Clause

The “elastic clause” allowing Congress to pass laws beyond those explicitly listed in the Constitution

Trustee Model of Representation

When legislators vote based on their own judgment about what is best for the nation

Instructed Delegate Model

When legislators vote strictly according to their constituents’ preferences

Mayhew’s Three Activities

Advertising

Pork Barrel Spending

Government funding secured by legislators for projects that benefit their own districts

Earmarks

Specific funding designations in bills for particular projects or purposes

Casework

Helping constituents navigate government agencies or resolve specific problems

Ombudsperson

An official who advocates for citizens and helps resolve government-related complaints

Logrolling

The exchange of votes between legislators to secure mutual benefits

Policy Making

Congress’s central role in creating and passing laws

Congressional Oversight

The process by which Congress monitors the executive branch through hearings

Agenda Setting (Congress)

The power of Congress to decide which national issues are debated and prioritized

Managing Societal Conflict

Congress’s role in balancing competing interests like rural vs. urban or pro-life vs. pro-choice

House of Representatives

The larger congressional chamber with 435 members

Senate

The smaller chamber with 100 members

Standing Committee

A permanent congressional committee that handles legislation in specific policy areas

Select Committee

A temporary committee formed for a specific purpose such as an investigation

Joint Committee

A committee composed of members from both chambers to address issues of mutual concern

Subcommittee

A smaller unit of a standing committee that specializes in particular topics

Seniority System

The tradition that longer-serving members of Congress often chair committees

Rules Committee (House)

The committee that sets the terms for debate and amendments on the House floor

Unanimous Consent Agreement (Senate)

An agreement among senators on how to debate and amend a bill

Filibuster

A prolonged debate used to delay or block Senate votes

Cloture

The 60-vote motion required to end a filibuster

Conference Committee

A temporary panel that resolves differences between House and Senate versions of a bill

Veto and Override

The president can veto legislation

Speaker of the House

The presiding officer and most powerful leader of the House

Majority and Minority Leaders

Elected party leaders in each chamber who coordinate legislative strategies

Whips

Party officials who ensure discipline

President of the Senate

The Vice President of the United States

President Pro Tempore

The senior member of the majority party who presides over the Senate in the Vice President’s absence

Partisanship

The growing polarization and loyalty to political parties in congressional voting behavior

Interest Groups and Lobbying

Organizations that influence legislation by funding campaigns