Public Policy and Governance Notes

A set of flashcards designed to help understand key concepts in public policy and governance, focusing on definitions and explanations from lecture notes.

What is the Rationality Paradigm?

A worldview assuming policymaking can be scientific, logical, and objective, producing optimal solutions through analysis.

Who developed the Rationality Project?

Harold Lasswell (1948) — founder of the “policy sciences,” sought to make policymaking rational and evidence-based.

What are Lasswell’s seven stages of the policy process?

Intelligence Promotion Prescription Invocation Application Appraisal Termination → Later simplified into the policy cycle.

What is the modern policy cycle?

Agenda-setting Policy formulation Decision-making Implementation Evaluation A heuristic, not literal process — shows how policy moves through stages.

Key assumptions of the rational model:

Policymakers are fully rational. Perfect information available. Politics can be separated from analysis. There is one optimal solution. Decisions follow a linear, logical sequence.

What is the Rationality Project trying to achieve?

To rescue policymaking from politics using reason, objectivity, and analysis — dominated by economics and the market model.

What is bounded rationality (Herbert Simon, 1957)?

Humans face cognitive and informational limits → cannot optimize. They satisfice (choose an option that’s good enough).

What is satisficing?

Combining “satisfy” + “suffice” → choosing the first option that meets minimal criteria rather than searching for the best one.

What does bounded rationality imply for policymaking?

Policies are imperfect compromises made under pressure, time constraints, and limited data — not perfect optimization.

How does bounded rationality connect to Lasswell?

It modifies Lasswell’s rational model — shows why full rationality is impossible in real decision-making.

What is incrementalism (Lindblom, 1959)?

The idea that policymakers make small, gradual changes (“muddling through”) rather than sweeping reforms.

Why does incrementalism occur?

Because of bounded rationality — limited information, conflict of values, and institutional inertia.

What is the Policy Paradox (Stone, 2008)?

Deborah Stone’s critique that policymaking is symbolic, emotional, and political, not rational or objective.

What does Stone call the Rationality Project?

A political attempt to replace politics with “science” — dominated by economics and rational analysis.

What three models/pillars of rational policymaking does Stone critique?

Model of Reasoning – Rational decision-making Model of Society – Market model Model of Policymaking – Production-line model

Model of Reasoning — Rational Decision-Making

Assumes policymakers can identify objectives, evaluate alternatives, and pick the optimal choice. ➡ Stone says: ignores emotions, morals, and political context.

Model of Society — The Market

Sees society as autonomous, rational individuals pursuing self-interest. ➡ Stone says: real societies are polis communities built on cooperation, identity, and belonging.

Model of Policymaking — The Production Model

Views policymaking as a linear, orderly sequence (problem → solution). ➡ Stone says: policy is chaotic, circular, and ideological. Sometimes solutions look for problems.

What is Stone’s alternative to the market model?

The Polis Model — politics as a community of interdependence and shared moral purpose, not competition.

What is the main difference between the market and the polis?

Market Polis Self-interest Cooperation Competition Solidarity Efficiency Justice Rationality Emotion & meaning

What are Stone’s “Causal Stories”?

Narratives that explain who or what caused a policy problem, assigning blame and shaping public understanding.

What are the four types of causal stories?

Intentional – deliberate harm (villain story). Mechanical – system causes harm automatically. Accidental – random, uncontrollable harm. Inadvertent – good intentions, bad outcomes.

Example of an intentional cause?

Corporation polluting for profit → punishment and regulation.

Example of a mechanical cause?

Automation leading to unemployment → reforming systems, retraining workers.

Example of an accidental cause?

Earthquake destroying homes → relief and reconstruction.

Example of an inadvertent cause?

Poverty caused by lack of education → education and awareness campaigns.

Difference between accidental and inadvertent causes:

Accidental: uncontrollable (no one to blame). Inadvertent: controllable and preventable through awareness (mild responsibility).

Why are causal stories political?

They assign blame, responsibility, and legitimacy → deciding what kind of policy response seems “reasonable.”

What is the Rationality Paradigm?

The belief that policymaking can be logical, analytical, and value-free — a scientific process.

Who are the main critics of the rationality paradigm?

Simon, Lindblom, Stone, Hajer, Zittoun, Hoppe — all argue that real policymaking is political, bounded, and social.

What does Hoppe’s problem complexity framework explain?

Different governance styles are needed depending on how uncertain (factual) and ambiguous (value-based) a problem is.

Hoppe’s four types of policy problems:

Type Cognitive Uncertainty Normative Ambiguity Example Structured Low Low Road repairs Technical High Low Climate modelling Normative Low High Education reform Unstructured High High Climate change

What is a “wicked problem”?

A policy problem with high uncertainty and ambiguity — no single cause or solution (e.g., climate change).

What does Zittoun mean by “domesticating wild problems”?

Turning complex, “wild” issues into manageable, governable problems through framing and simplification.

Why is domestication political?

It defines what counts as the problem and what solutions are legitimate.

Hajer’s governance puzzle:

How can authority exist in a world where traditional state sovereignty (territorial synchrony) has broken down?

What is classical-modernist government?

A hierarchical model assuming alignment between territory, authority, and identity (nation-state logic).

Why is classical-modernist government in trouble?

Globalisation, media, and networks disrupt clear lines of authority — no single actor controls legitimacy.

What is network governance?

Policy-making through horizontal collaboration among governments, NGOs, businesses, and civil society — no single sovereign actor.

What is mediatized politics (Hajer, 2009)?

Politics conducted through and influenced by media narratives and performances — legitimacy built in the public eye.

What is an institutional void (Hajer)?

A space where traditional institutions no longer provide clear authority or rules — forcing governance through negotiation.

What is the concept of territorial synchrony?

Alignment of a state’s authority, territory, and identity. Globalisation has broken this synchrony.

What deficits result from loss of territorial synchrony?

Implementation deficit – can’t enforce policies across borders. Learning deficit – poor adaptation to local conditions. Legitimacy deficit – citizens question transnational decisions.

What is the EU Water Framework Directive (WFD)?

A 2000 EU policy creating cross-border river-basin governance networks to improve water quality. → Example of network governance in practice.

What is the Rhine River Basin case?

Nine states cooperated to reduce pollution and coordinate flood risk — showing transnational governance across borders.

What is the New Public Management (NPM)?

Reform movement (1980s–1990s) applying private-sector logic to public institutions — efficiency, contracts, performance.

What replaced NPM?

New Public Governance (NPG) — emphasizes trust, negotiation, networks, and co-production over competition.

What are Type 1 and Type 2 governance networks?

Type 1: Within government hierarchies (vertical). Type 2: Functional, cross-sectoral issue networks (horizontal).

What is a bureaucracy (Weber)?

A hierarchical organization governed by rules, expertise, and neutrality — ensures consistent administration.

What is regulatory capture?

When a public regulatory agency is dominated by private interests it’s supposed to regulate.

What causes regulatory capture?

Lobbying & information control. Revolving doors (officials → industry jobs). Dependency on industry data or resources.

What are its consequences?

Weak enforcement. Biased policy outcomes. Public trust erosion.

What is an iron triangle?

A closed relationship between bureaucrats, legislators, and interest groups that shapes policy to mutual advantage.

What are interest groups?

Organizations seeking to influence policy outcomes in favor of specific goals or constituencies.

What is the difference between public and private interest groups?

Public Interest Private Interest Pursue the common good Pursue members’ benefits Broad participation Small, organized groups Face free-rider problems Easier coordination

What is pluralism?

System where multiple interest groups compete freely for influence → government acts as neutral referee.

What is corporatism?

Government formally includes organized interests (employers/unions) in policymaking through structured negotiation.

What are Knill & Tosun’s central institutions of policymaking?

Executive Legislature Judiciary Bureaucracy Media Interest groups

What are formal vs informal institutions?

Formal: Constitutions, laws, bureaucratic rules. Informal: Norms, traditions, social expectations.

What is a polity?

The constitutional and institutional structure of a political system.

What are the three branches of power (Trias Politica)?

Legislature Executive Judiciary → Ensures horizontal accountability.

What is vertical accountability?

Government’s responsibility to citizens through elections and public scrutiny.

What is horizontal accountability?

Checks and balances within the government (legislature ↔ judiciary ↔ executive).

What is the difference between codified and uncodified constitutions?

Codified: Written in one document (USA). Uncodified: Based on precedent and custom (UK).

What is negative liberty?

Freedom from government interference.

What is positive liberty?

Freedom to act and achieve one’s potential (requires government action/support).

What is the Rule of Law?

The principle that all individuals and institutions are subject to and accountable under the law.

What are avowals of intent?

Public declarations of policy goals made by Cabinet or government leaders.

What are “wicked problems” in policy studies?

Problems that are complex, cross-sectoral, and impossible to solve definitively (Hoppe, Rittel & Webber).

What is social construction of problems?

Policy problems are not objective facts — they are framed, interpreted, and contested by political actors (Stone, Zittoun, Kingdon).

Why is policymaking political according to Stone?

Because it is about values, persuasion, and meaning-making, not neutral analysis.

What is policy capacity?

The ability of a state to design, implement, and evaluate effective public policies.

What is public policy?

Government’s actions and inactions taken to achieve social goals — translating motives into measurable outcomes.

What is Lasswell’s view of public policy?

A rational process turning knowledge into action for the public good.

What is Stone’s view of public policy?

A political process of struggle over meaning and values, not neutral problem-solving.