Soc: 2.1-2.4 Book Notes

Flashcards covering the seven stages of the research process, key concepts (inference, replication, uncertainty, reflexivity), and other foundational ideas from the Basic Concepts lecture on empirical social science research.

What are the seven stages of the sociological research process?

Define the Research Problem; Review the Literature; Make the Problem Precise; Work Out a Design; Carry Out the Research; Interpret the Results; Report the Findings.

What is the first goal of sociological research?

Inference: generalize from limited data to broader phenomena beyond the specific setting or group.

What does replication/reproducibility require in sociological research?

Other researchers should be able to retrace the paths to findings; data collection and analysis procedures should be public and explicit.

What does the scientific community value regarding uncertainty in conclusions?

Researchers should be transparent about all sources of uncertainty and honest about how certain they are.

What is reflexivity in social science?

Acknowledging that the investigator is part of the world studied and may influence questions and interpretation through power, values, and identity.

Which stage involves selecting among surveys, interviews, or observational methods?

Work Out a Design (Stage 4), where the researcher decides how to collect data.

What is the purpose of the Review the Literature stage?

To see how previous researchers solved similar puzzles, clarify issues, and identify gaps.

What is a research puzzle?

A gap in understanding that invites illumination about why events happen.

What does Carry Out the Research entail?

Executing the plan, addressing practical difficulties, and avoiding omissions that could bias results.

What does Interpret the Results involve?

Analyzing data, tracking trends, testing hypotheses, and telling a coherent story that addresses the research puzzle.

What is involved in Report the Findings?

Publishing the account of the question, methods, findings, and implications; identifying unanswered questions for future research.

What is a hypothesis in this context?

An educated guess about what is going on, formulated so that factual material can support or disprove it.

Why might research not follow the seven-step sequence exactly?

Real projects may deviate from fixed schemes; deviations can be necessary or beneficial.

What is the role of explicit methodology in social science?

Documentation allows others to learn from the methods and address limitations.

What are the seven stages of the sociological research process?

Define the Research Problem; Review the Literature; Make the Problem Precise; Work Out a Design; Carry Out the Research; Interpret the Results; Report the Findings.

What is the first goal of sociological research?

Inference: generalize from limited data to broader phenomena beyond the specific setting or group.

What does replication/reproducibility require in sociological research?

Other researchers should be able to retrace the paths to findings; data collection and analysis procedures should be public and explicit.

What does the scientific community value regarding uncertainty in conclusions?

Researchers should be transparent about all sources of uncertainty and honest about how certain they are.

What is reflexivity in social science?

Acknowledging that the investigator is part of the world studied and may influence questions and interpretation through power, values, and identity.

Which stage involves selecting among surveys, interviews, or observational methods?

Work Out a Design (Stage 4), where the researcher decides how to collect data.

What is the purpose of the Review the Literature stage?

To see how previous researchers solved similar puzzles, clarify issues, and identify gaps.

What is a research puzzle?

A gap in understanding that invites illumination about why events happen.

What does Carry Out the Research entail?

Executing the plan, addressing practical difficulties, and avoiding omissions that could bias results.

What does Interpret the Results involve?

Analyzing data, tracking trends, testing hypotheses, and telling a coherent story that addresses the research puzzle.

What is involved in Report the Findings?

Publishing the account of the question, methods, findings, and implications; identifying unanswered questions for future research.

What is a hypothesis in this context?

An educated guess about what is going on, formulated so that factual material can support or disprove it.

Why might research not follow the seven-step sequence exactly?

Real projects may deviate from fixed schemes; deviations can be necessary or beneficial.

What is the role of explicit methodology in social science?

Documentation allows others to learn from the methods and address limitations.

What makes a good sociological research question?

It should be specific, answerable through empirical investigation, and sociologically relevant.

What are the three main types of sociological research questions?

Exploratory, Descriptive, and Explanatory.

What is the purpose of exploratory research questions?

To investigate an area about which little is known, aiming to gain initial insights.

What do descriptive research questions seek to accomplish?

To document and describe the characteristics of a population or phenomenon.

What is the goal of explanatory research questions?

To identify and understand the causes or reasons behind social phenomena.

What is a theoretical framework in sociological research?

A set of concepts and theories used to structure the research, guiding the research questions and data interpretation.

Beyond identifying gaps, what else is the literature review important for?

Developing a theoretical framework, refining research questions, and understanding previous methodologies.

What are primary sources in a literature review?

Original reports of research studies, directly from the researchers themselves.

What are secondary sources in a literature review?

Interpretations or summaries of primary sources by others.

Why are concepts crucial in sociological research?

They are the building blocks of theories and help define what is being studied.

What is operationalization?

The process of defining how a concept will be measured in a research study.

What is an independent variable?

The variable that is manipulated or changed by the researcher, hypothesized to cause an effect.

What is a dependent variable?

The variable that is measured and observed, hypothesized to be affected by the independent variable.

What is a control variable?

A variable that is kept constant or accounted for to prevent it from influencing the relationship between the independent and dependent variables.

What is a null hypothesis (H_0)?

A statement that there is no relationship or no difference between two or more variables.

What is an alternative hypothesis (H_1)?

A statement that there is a relationship or difference between two or more variables, contradicting the null hypothesis.

What is deductive reasoning in research?

Starting with a general theory or hypothesis and testing it with specific empirical observations.

What is inductive reasoning in research?

Starting with specific empirical observations and developing a broader theory or generalization.

What characterizes a qualitative research question?

It often asks 'how' or 'what,' exploring processes and meanings rather than measuring variables.

What characterizes a quantitative research question?

It often asks about relationships between variables, seeking to measure and test hypotheses.

What is a research design?

A detailed plan for how a research study will be conducted, outlining methods for data collection and analysis.

What is the core difference between qualitative and quantitative approaches?

Qualitative focuses on in-depth understanding and meaning; Quantitative focuses on measurement and numerical data.

What is random sampling?

A method where every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected, ensuring representativeness.

What is stratified sampling?

Dividing the population into subgroups (strata) and then random sampling from each stratum.

What is convenience sampling?

Selecting participants who are readily available or accessible to the researcher.

What is snowball sampling?

Recruiting initial participants who then refer other potential participants, often used for hard-to-reach populations.

What is reliability in research?

The consistency of a research measure, meaning it produces the same results under the same conditions.

What is validity in research?

The extent to which a research measure accurately measures what it intends to measure.

What is internal validity?

The extent to which a study establishes a trustworthy cause-and-effect relationship between variables.

What is external validity?

The extent to which the findings of a study can be generalized to other populations, settings, or times.

What is construct validity?

The degree to which a test measures the theoretical construct it is intended to measure.

What is content validity?

The extent to which a measure covers all aspects of the concept it is intended to measure.

What are the three core ethical principles in human subjects research?

Respect for Persons, Beneficence, and Justice.

What is informed consent?

Participants must be fully aware of the research's nature, risks, and benefits before agreeing to participate.

What is the difference between anonymity and confidentiality?

Anonymity means the researcher cannot link responses to individuals; Confidentiality means the researcher knows but promises not to reveal identities.

What is a survey in sociological research?

A method of gathering data from a sample of individuals using a standardized questionnaire or interview schedule.

What is a Likert scale?

A psychometric scale commonly used in surveys, where respondents rate their agreement/disagreement with statements.

What is an experiment in social science?

A research method where the researcher manipulates one or more variables to determine their effect on another variable, often under controlled conditions.

What is ethnography?

An in-depth, qualitative research method involving immersion in a social setting to understand a cultural group or community from an insider's perspective.

What is a case study?

An in-depth investigation of a single individual, group, event, or community to understand complex phenomena.

What are focus groups?

A qualitative data collection method where a small group discusses a specific topic, guided by a moderator, to explore diverse perspectives.

What is secondary data analysis?

The analysis of existing data (e.g., government statistics, historical documents) that was collected by others.

What is content analysis?

Systematically analyzing communication content (e.g., texts, images, videos) to identify patterns, themes, or biases.

What is the difference between longitudinal and cross-sectional studies?

Longitudinal studies follow subjects over time; Cross-sectional studies collect data at a single point in time.

What is a common challenge during the 'Carry Out the Research' stage?

Gaining access to research sites or participants, and managing unexpected logistical difficulties.

What is interviewer bias?

When the interviewer's characteristics or behavior unintentionally influence a participant's responses.

What is response bias?

A general term for a range of biases that can occur when participants respond to questions in surveys or interviews, such as social desirability bias.

What is a pilot study?

A small-scale preliminary study conducted to evaluate feasibility, time, cost, adverse events, and improve the research design prior to a full-scale study.

Why is establishing rapport important in qualitative interviews?

It helps build trust and encourages participants to share more open and honest information.

What is thematic analysis in qualitative research?

A method for identifying, analyzing, and reporting patterns (themes) within qualitative data.

Differentiate between descriptive and inferential statistics.

Descriptive statistics summarize and describe data; Inferential statistics make inferences and predictions about a population based on a sample.

What is the difference between correlation and causation?

Correlation indicates a relationship between variables; Causation means one variable directly influences another.

What does statistical significance mean?

The likelihood that an observed result occurred by chance; a low p-value suggests the result is unlikely due to chance.

What is the role of theory in interpreting research results?

Theory provides a framework for understanding and explaining findings, and findings can refine or challenge existing theories.

Why is it important to address the limitations of a study in the interpretation stage?

Acknowledging limitations enhances credibility and helps future researchers improve upon the study.

What is triangulation in social research?

Using multiple methods, data sources, or theories to investigate a phenomenon, enhancing the validity of findings.

What is the typical structure of a sociological research report?

Abstract, Introduction, Literature Review, Methodology, Findings, Discussion, Conclusion, References.

What is the purpose of the peer-review process in publishing research?

To ensure the quality, validity, and rigor of research before publication by subjecting it to scrutiny by experts in the field.

What is generalizability of findings?

The extent to which the conclusions from a study can be applied to a wider population or different contexts.

What is meant by 'public sociology'?

The practice of sociology that seeks to engage with public audiences and contribute to public debates and social change.

What is the role of values in social research?

Researchers' values can influence topic selection and interpretation, making reflexivity crucial, but they should strive for objectivity in data collection and analysis.

What is positivism in sociological research?

An approach that emphasizes the use of scientific methods to study social phenomena, seeking to identify universal laws and objective truths.

What is interpretivism in sociological research?

An approach that focuses on understanding the subjective meanings and interpretations that people attach to their social world.

What is a key challenge in ensuring external validity?

Ensuring the sample accurately represents the broader population or context to which findings are generalized.

What are ethical considerations primarily concerned with in research?

Protecting the rights, safety, and well-being of participants.

How can researchers minimize personal bias in interpreting results?

Through systematic analysis, seeking feedback from peers, and clearly documenting their analytical process.