the persistence oflearning over time through theencoding, storage, and retrieval ofinformation
New cards
2
encoding
the processing of information into the memory system -- for example, by extracting meaning
New cards
3
storage
the process of retaining encoded information over time
New cards
4
retrieval
the process of getting information out of memory storage
New cards
5
parallel processing
the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously
New cards
6
sensory memory
the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system
New cards
7
short-term memory
activated memory that holds a few items briefly before the information is stored or forgotten
New cards
8
long-term memory
the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system
New cards
9
working memory
a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory
New cards
10
explicit memory
memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare"
New cards
11
effortful processing
encoding that requires attention and conscious effort
New cards
12
automatic processing
unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings
New cards
13
implicit memory
retention independent of conscious recollection
New cards
14
iconic memory
a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second
New cards
15
echoic memory
a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds
New cards
16
chunking
organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically
New cards
17
mnemonics
memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices
New cards
18
spacing effect
the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice
New cards
19
testing effect
enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information
New cards
20
shallow processing
encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words
New cards
21
deep processing
encoding semantically; based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention
New cards
22
hippocampus
a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage
New cards
23
flashbulb memory
a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event
New cards
24
long-term potentiation (LTP)
an increase in a cell's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation
New cards
25
recall
a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test
New cards
26
recognition
a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test
New cards
27
relearning
a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again
New cards
28
priming
the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory
New cards
29
mood-congruent memory
the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood
New cards
30
serial position effect
our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list
New cards
31
anterograde amnesia
an inability to form new memories
New cards
32
retrograde amnesia
an inability to retrieve information from one's past
New cards
33
proactive interference
the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information
New cards
34
retroactive interference
the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information
New cards
35
misinformation effect
incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event
New cards
36
source amnesia
attributing to the wrong source an event we have experiences
New cards
37
cognition
all mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
New cards
38
concept
a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people
New cards
39
prototype
a mental image or best example of a category
New cards
40
convergent thinking
narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution
New cards
41
divergent thinking
expands the number of possible problem solutions
New cards
42
algorithm
a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem
New cards
43
heuristic
a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently
New cards
44
confirmation bias
a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence
New cards
45
mental set
a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past
New cards
46
representativeness heuristic
judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information
New cards
47
availability heuristic
estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory
New cards
48
overconfidence
the tendency to be more confident than correct -- to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments
New cards
49
belief perseverance
clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited
New cards
50
framing
the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments
New cards
51
language
our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate
New cards
52
phoneme
in a language, the smallest distinctive sound unit
New cards
53
morpheme
in a language, the smallest unit carries meaning may be a word or a part of a word
New cards
54
grammar
in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others
New cards
55
aphasia
impairment of language, usually caused by left-hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (speaking) or to Wernicke's area (understanding)
New cards
56
Broca's area
controls language expression
New cards
57
Wernicke's area
controls language reception
New cards
58
intelligence
mental quality consisting of the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations
New cards
59
general intelligence
a general intelligence factor that, according to Spearman and others, underlies specific mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test
New cards
60
factor analysis
a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items on a test
New cards
61
savant syndrome
a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill, such as in computation or drawing
New cards
62
emotional intelligence
the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions
New cards
63
mental age
a measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet; the chronological age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance
New cards
64
Stanford-Binet
the widely used American revision of Binet's original intelligence test
New cards
65
intelligence quotient (IQ)
defined originally as the ratio of mental age to chronological age multiplied by 100 IQ = mental age (ma)/chronological age(ca) x 100
New cards
66
achievement test
a test designed to assess what a person has learned
New cards
67
aptitude test
a test designed to predict a person's future performance; aptitude is the capacity to learn
New cards
68
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)
the WAIS is the most widely used intelligence test; contains verbal and performance subtests
New cards
69
standardization
defining uniform testing procedures and meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a protested group
New cards
70
normal curve
the symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes
New cards
71
reliability
the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, on alternate forms of the test, or on retesting
New cards
72
content validity
the extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest
New cards
73
predictive validity
the success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict
New cards
74
cohort
a group of people from a given time period
New cards
75
crystallized intelligence
our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age
New cards
76
fluid intelligence
our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood
New cards
77
intellectual disability
a condition of limited mental ability, indicated by an intelligence score of 70 or below and difficulty in adapting to the demands of life
New cards
78
stereotype threat
a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based in a negative stereotype