Introductory Psychology – Exam 1 Study Guide

Vocabulary flashcards covering major concepts, terms, and examples from Chapters 1-4 of the study guide to aid exam preparation.

Psychology

The scientific study of the mind and behavior.

Structuralism

Early school of thought that sought to identify the basic elements of consciousness through introspection.

Introspection

Self-observation of one’s own conscious experiences used by structuralists.

Functionalism

Early approach that emphasized the purpose of consciousness and behavior in adapting to the environment.

Nature

Influence of genetics and inherited traits on development and behavior.

Nurture

Influence of environmental factors on development and behavior.

Evolutionary Perspective

Explains behavior and mental processes in terms of their adaptive value for survival.

Psychoanalytic Perspective

Emphasizes unconscious drives and conflicts as determinants of behavior.

Science

Systematic approach to knowledge based on observation, experimentation, and open skepticism.

Pseudoscience

Claims presented as scientific without empirical evidence and that resist open skepticism.

Population (Research)

Entire group a researcher is interested in studying.

Sample

Subset of a population selected for study.

Representative Sample

Sample that accurately reflects the characteristics of its population.

Case Study

In-depth investigation of a single individual or small group.

Naturalistic Observation

Recording behavior in its natural setting without intervention.

Survey

Data collection method using questionnaires or interviews with large groups.

Replication

Repeating a study to verify results and strengthen reliability.

Confounding Variable

Factor other than the independent variable that may influence the dependent variable.

Correlational Study

Examines relationships between variables to determine association but not causation.

Positive Correlation

Both variables increase or decrease together.

Negative Correlation

One variable increases as the other decreases.

Strong Correlation

Close, predictable relationship between variables.

Weak Correlation

Less consistent relationship; predictions are less reliable.

Experimental Study

Manipulates independent variables to establish cause-and-effect with a dependent variable.

Experimental Group

Participants who receive the independent-variable manipulation.

Control Group

Participants who do not receive the manipulation; basis for comparison.

Blind Study

Participants do not know whether they are in the experimental or control group.

Double-Blind Study

Neither participants nor researchers know group assignments, reducing bias.

Placebo

Inactive substance or treatment causing effects via participant expectation.

Mean

Arithmetic average of a set of numbers.

Median

Middle value in an ordered data set.

Mode

Most frequently occurring value in a data set.

Ethical Guidelines (Human Subjects)

Include informed consent, protection from harm, confidentiality, and debriefing.

Neuron

Nerve cell consisting of dendrites, cell body, axon, and axon terminals.

Dendrites

Branchlike structures that receive neural signals.

Axon

Long fiber that transmits impulses away from the cell body.

Axon Terminals

Endpoints that release neurotransmitters into the synapse.

Action Potential

All-or-none electrical impulse traveling down an axon.

Reuptake

Reabsorption of neurotransmitters by the presynaptic neuron after release.

Sensory Neuron

Afferent neuron carrying information from sensory receptors to the CNS.

Motor Neuron

Efferent neuron transmitting signals from the CNS to muscles or glands.

Mirror Neuron

Neuron that fires when performing or observing the same action; linked to empathy and imitation.

Neurotransmitter

Chemical messenger transmitting signals across synapses; imbalances linked to disease.

Acetylcholine (ACh)

Neurotransmitter involved in muscle contraction and memory.

Dopamine

Neurotransmitter associated with pleasure, reward, and motor control; linked to Parkinson’s disease.

Serotonin

Neurotransmitter influencing mood, sleep, and appetite; deficits linked to depression.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Brain and spinal cord; main control center of the body.

Sympathetic Nervous System

Autonomic branch that activates fight-or-flight responses.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Autonomic branch that calms the body; rest-and-digest functions.

Thyroid Gland

Endocrine gland regulating metabolism, growth, and development.

Brain Stem

Structure controlling vital functions like breathing and heart rate.

Cerebellum

Brain region coordinating voluntary movement, balance, and motor learning.

Hippocampus

Limbic structure essential for forming new memories.

Frontal Lobe

Cerebral region for planning, decision-making, and personality.

Parietal Lobe

Processes sensory information such as touch and spatial awareness.

Temporal Lobe

Handles auditory processing and memory.

Occipital Lobe

Primary center for visual processing.

Phineas Gage

Railway worker whose frontal-lobe injury changed personality, illuminating brain-behavior links.

Neuroplasticity

Brain’s ability to reorganize by forming new neural connections.

Split-Brain Procedure

Surgical severing of the corpus callosum to treat severe epilepsy.

Somatosensory Cortex

Parietal-lobe area processing body sensations such as touch and pain.

Sensation

Process of receiving and representing stimulus energies via sensory receptors.

Transduction

Conversion of physical energy into neural signals by sensory receptors.

Absolute Threshold

Minimum stimulation needed to detect a stimulus 50% of the time.

Signal Detection Theory

Predicts detection of faint stimuli amid noise, factoring in psychological states.

Difference Threshold (JND)

Smallest difference between two stimuli detectable 50% of the time.

Weber’s Law

JND is a constant proportion of the original stimulus intensity.

Sensory Adaptation

Reduced sensitivity to constant stimulation over time.

Perceptual Set

Mental predisposition influencing what we perceive.

Accommodation (Eye)

Lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina.

Apparent Motion

Perception of movement from rapid presentation of stationary images.

Figure-Ground

Organization of visual field into objects (figures) and background (ground).

Gestalt Principle: Proximity

Objects close together are perceived as a group.

Gestalt Principle: Similarity

Objects that look alike are grouped together.

Gestalt Principle: Closure

We fill in gaps to perceive a complete, whole object.

Gestalt Principle: Continuity

We perceive smooth, continuous patterns rather than discontinuous ones.

Gestalt Principle: Connectedness

Elements that are linked are seen as a single unit.

Binocular Disparity

Difference between retinal images that provides depth information.

Monocular Cue: Interposition

Closer objects block the view of farther objects.

Monocular Cue: Linear Perspective

Parallel lines appear to converge with distance, indicating depth.

Monocular Cue: Relative Size

Smaller retinal image is perceived as farther away.

Monocular Cue: Texture Gradient

Textured surfaces appear finer and smoother with distance.

Perceptual Constancy: Shape

Perceiving an object’s shape as constant despite changes in viewing angle.

Perceptual Constancy: Size

Perceiving an object’s size as stable despite changes in distance.

Perceptual Constancy: Color

Perceiving an object’s color as consistent under changing illumination.

Opponent Process Theory

Color vision based on opposing retinal processes: red-green, yellow-blue, and black-white.