exam 1

Age grade

A system of categorizing individuals, into groups based on their age, often used in educational settings to facilitate learning.

SOCIALLY DEFINED AGE GROUPS

Age Norms

Standards that define the appropriate behaviors, roles, and expectations for individuals at different ages within a society.

(statuses, roles, privileges, responsibilities),

~varies in cultures

What affects development?

• Genetics (biological)

• environment

• culture

• social interactions

Activity vs Passivity

whether individuals ACTIVELY shape their own development through choices and actions

or

development is PASSIVELY shaped by external forces (like upbringing and social influences) and experiences.

Nature vs. Nurture

the relative contributions of genetic inheritance (NATURE) and environmental factors (NURTURE) to human development and behavior.

Brain Plasticity

The brain's ability to change and adapt its structure in response to experience, learning, and environmental influences throughout a person's life.

• Essential for recovery from injury and learning new skills.

Sigmund Freud

And the goal of Psychoanalysis therapy

Founder of psychoanalysis, known for theories on the unconscious mind, defense mechanisms, and the significance of childhood experiences in shaping personality.

Goal- to make unconscious thoughts conscious so repressed emotions/experiences can be released and understood, leading to personal insight and emotional healing.

~uses free association

Alfred Adler (individual psychology):

Founder of individual psychology, known for concepts of inferiority complex and the importance of social interest in personality development.

• Based on idea that people are social beings and that their behavior is shaped by their relationships with others

Carl Jung (analytical psychology)

Psychoanalyst who founded analytical psychology, emphasizing the collective unconscious and archetypes in personality development.

• Based on idea that the Psyche is made up of 3 parts: The ego, personal unconscious and the collective unconscious

Karen Horney (neurosis)

Known for her theories on neurosis, emphasizing cultural and social factors in personality development and human behavior.

• She challenged Freud's views on female psychology and introduced concepts such as basic anxiety and the need for affection.

• Focused on understanding how social and cultural factors influence mental health particularly the way we form relationships and cope with anxiety.

Erik Erikson (Psychosocial Theory)

Developmental psychologist known for his Psychosocial Theory: Theory of social and emotional development that describes how people resolve conflicts as they grow

• believed that people learn through social interactions and these interactions help them develop skills that last a lifetime

John Watson: Behaviorism & classical conditioning

Founded behaviorism, a theory that focuses on observable behavior rather than thoughts or feelings.

• Believed that behavior is learned through interactions with the environment and that all behaviors are shaped by conditioning

"Little Albert" study, he conditioned a baby to fear a white rat by pairing it with a loud, scary noise. Watson argued that psychology should be based on observable actions, not inner thoughts. (REJECTS INTERNAL MENTAL PROCESSES INCLUDING CONSCIOUSNESS)

Classical Conditioning

The forming of association between a stimulus and response

B.F Skinner (Operant Conditioning)

Developed operant conditioning:

• a learning process where behavior is shaped by rewards and punishments. He believed that behavior is controlled by its consequences.

Operant Conditioning: Positive & Negative Reinforcements

• Reinforcement: Increases the likelihood of a behavior happening again.

  • Positive reinforcement: Adding something pleasant (e.g., giving a treat for good behavior).

  • Negative reinforcement: Removing something unpleasant (e.g., taking away chores for good behavior).

Operant Conditioning: Positive & Negative Punishment

• Punishment: Decreases the likelihood of a behavior happening again.

  • Positive punishment: Adding something unpleasant (e.g., giving extra homework for misbehavior).

  • Negative punishment: Taking away something pleasant (e.g., losing phone privileges).

Albert Bandura (Social Cognitive Theory)

Emphasizes the role of cognitive processes in learning

• People don’t just learn by imitating others but also through thinking, reasoning, and self-reflection.

• Learning isn’t just about rewards and punishments (as behaviorism suggests) but also about cognitive processes and personal agency in shaping behavior.

Albert Bandura (Reciprocal Determinism)

Suggests that human behavior is influenced by an interaction between three factors:

1. Personal factors (cognitive, emotional, and biological influences)

2. Behavior (actions and decisions)

3. Environmental factors (social and physical surroundings)

Urie Bronfenbrenner (Ecological Systems Theory)

Development is influenced by different environmental systems that interact with each other

Bronfenbrenners Microsystem and Mesosystem

Microsystem: The immediate environment that directly impacts an individual (close relationships/settings where the person interacts regularly: school, peer groups, workplace, neighborhood)

• Most impact on development

Mesosystem: Represents interactions between different elements of the microsystem (relationships between Childs parents and their teacher, etc)

• emphasizes how connections between different environments (home, school, community) impacts experiences/development

Positive relation→enhances development

Negative relation→ stress

Bronfenbrenners Exosystem and Macrosystem

Exosystem: the broader environment that affects an individual indirectly (parents workplace) although the individual may not interact directly with this environment it can still have a significant effect on their life.

(Parents work schedule/stress → can influence home environment )

Macrosystem: The larger cultural, societal and ideological influences that shape the environment in which people live (culture values, societal norms, laws, etc).

~overarching context that can affect all other layers (cultural beliefs about parenting or educational systems can shape how children are raised or educated in specific societies.

Bronfenbrenners Chronosystem

Incorporates the element of time and how the environment and individual develop over time (life transitions such as moving to new city, starting school, family divorce, historical events, etc)

A child growing up during a time of economic hardship might experience development differently than a child raised during period of prosperity)

Gottlieb: Epigenetic Psychological Systems Perspective

Experiences can affect how our genes express themselves

AND

Genes also shape how we interact with our environment

Cross-Sectional Design

A cross-sectional design is a type of research method used to study different groups of people at one point in time

-Multiple cohorts

-age differences

If researchers want to study how memory changes with age, they might compare:

• A group of young adults (20s)

• A group of middle-aged adults (40s)

• A group of older adults (60s+)

-cohort effects (risk): Differences between groups may be due to factors other than age (like education or life experiences)

Longitudinal Design

a research method where the same group of people are studied over an extended period of time to observe changes and development.

• Repeated observations – The same individuals are tested or surveyed multiple times.

• Tracks changes over time – Helps researchers understand how people develop or how behaviors change.

• Can last months, years, or even decades – Depending on what is being studied.

A psychologist studying child development might follow a group of kids from age 5 to 18 to see how their cognitive skills change over time.

-time-of-measurements effects

Sequential Design (also called a cross-sequential or cohort-sequential design)

Research method that combines elements of both longitudinal and cross-sectional designs.

• Researchers study multiple cohorts (groups of people of different ages) at the same time.

• They also follow these cohorts over time, like in a longitudinal study.

• This helps separate age effects (changes due to aging) from cohort effects (differences due to the time period in which people were born).

A researcher studying memory might test groups of 30-year-olds, 40-year-olds, and 50-year-olds at the same time. Then, they would test the same people again every 5 years to track changes over time.

• Reduces biases and provides a more complete picture of development.

Species Heredity

The passing on of genetic traits from one generation of a species to the next

• inheritance pattern within a species population, ensuring that new individuals share similar traits with their ancestors

Individual Heredity

Refers to the specific genetic make up or set of traits that an individual inherits from their parents

• unique combination of genes passed down from both parents making each person genetically distinct from others

Chromosomes

The structures in our cells that carry our genetic information

~made up of DNA

23 pairs of chromosome (46 chromosomes total)

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid)

Genes

• genetic information

Ovum + Sperm = Zygote

Ovum (egg) and Sperm have 23 chromosomes each they are Gametes

Gametes are sex cells

• they are the exception and have 23 chromosomes instead of 46

Zygote: fertilized Ovum (egg)

Sex Chromosomes (23rd pair)

X and Y are the Sex Chromosomes

• XX-Female

• XY-Male

Sperm determines gender (Can be X or Y)

Eggs (ovum) are always X

Single gene-pair inheritance

A trait is controlled by one gene with two versions (alleles) one from each parent.

• if one version of the gene is dominant (A) and the other is recessive (a) the dominant one will show in the persons trait

• for a recessive trait to show there needs to be two recessive alleles (aa)

Sex-linked inheritance

Traits passed down through X or Y chromosomes

Polygenic inheritance

A trait is controlled by many genes, not just one.

• each gene adds a small effect to the trait

• This leads to a range of traits like tall or short, light or dark skin, different shades of eye color, etc.)

Not just one simple dominant or recessive gene, but a bunch of genes working together.

Mutations

Changes in the DNA sequence that make up a gene

• can happen naturally or due to environmental factors like radiation, chemicals, viruses.

~Point mutation

~Insertion or Deletion

~Duplication

~Chromosomal mutation

Down syndrome (Trisomy 21)

Extra copy of Chromosome 21

• 47 chromosomes

• cognitive or intellectual impairments vary

• characteristic physical features, developmental delays, and sometimes health problems like heart defects or hearing loss.

Fragile X Syndrome

X chromosome looks fragile or broken

• 46 chromsomes

• Cognitive impairment varies

• Genetic disease

• Affects various organ systems

Turner Syndrome (XO)

O means zero

• 45 chromosomes

• Only has one sex chromosome (X)

• Develop female sex characteristics

• Physical traits differ from people without: wide neck, wide torso, shorter etc)

• Health concerns (heart problems, kidney problems, hormonal imbalances and more)

Typically have trouble conceiving.

Klinefelter syndrome (XXY)

Extra X chromosome

• 47 chromosomes

• develop male

• might not notice until puberty

• wider hips, excess breast tissue

• fertility issues

• not distinguishable

Gene-environment interactions

The gene influences how the environment affects the person

AND

The environment influences how the genes affect the person

Gene→environment→person

Environment→gene→person

Gene-environment Correlations (rGE)

Refers to the ways in which individuals genetic makeup can influence their exposure to certain environments and how the environment they experience can also interact with their genetic predisposition

Genes/Environment are interlinked influences on development

Passive Gene-Environment Correlation

Occurs when parents provide both genes and environment for their children

• Parents genetically predisposed to be intelligent (have intelligent genes that help with cognitive abilities) → may provide an intellectually stimulating home environment (books, discussions, etc) → Child inherits parents genes and is exposed to an environment that nurtures intellectual development

Evocative (or reactive) Gene-Environment Correlation

Happens when an individuals genetic traits evoke certain responses from others which then shape their environment

• Child who is naturally more sociable (due to genetic traits) → may receive more positive attention and encouragement from teachers or peers → could lead to more social experiences and opportunities, reinforcing social skills.

Active Gene-Environmental Correlation:

Individuals actively seek out or create environments that are compatible with their genetic predispositions

• Person who is genetically predisposed to be musically inclined → may seek out environments that support their musical interests (joining a band, musical lessons) → which further enhances their musical abilities.

Heritability

A measure of how much of the variation in a trait (like height, intelligence, or risk for certain diseases) is due to genetics, rather than environmental factors.

• specific to a population and environment, not an individual.

• A high heritability means that genetics play a big role in shaping the trait

• while a low heritability means the environment has a larger influence.

Twin studies

Compare identical twins (Same DNA) and fraternal twins (share about 50% of DNA)

• If identical twins are more similar on a trait then fraternal twins, it suggests genetics play a big role

Adoption studies

Compare adopted children to biological parents (genes) and adoptive parents (environment)

• If a child is more like their biological parent, it suggests genetics has a stronger influence than environment

Family studies

Looks at how traits run in biological families across multiple generations

• if a trait appears more in close relatives than distant ones, it suggests genetic influence

Concordance rates

Measure how often two people (usually relatives) share the same trait or condition

• often used in twin studies to determine the genetic influence on traits

High Concordance rates → Strong genetic influence

Low Concordance rates → Environmental factors play a bigger role

Correlation

Statistical measure that describes the relationship between two variables (how they change together)

What factors contribute to individual difference?

• Genes

• Shared environment influences: All shared activity, some parents, home environment, school)

• Non-shared environment influences: Any given moment that a person is experiencing their own experience

Germinal Period: days 1-14

Implantation and Fertilization (within 24 hours of ovulation)

day 8-14: blastocyst is fully embedded into wall of uterus and has 250 cells

Embryonic Period- Weeks 3-8

organogenesis- organs begin to form

3-4 weeks: brain starts to form

week 4- heart and eyes form

week 5- ears, mouth, throat, arm/leg buds and heart differentiation

weeks 7/8: testes/ovaries depending on sex chromosome

Neural tube defects (days 25-29)

spina bifida and anencephaly

• too little folic acid

Fetal period- Week 9-birth

Neuronal Proliferation- especially weeks 10-12

• multiplying of neurons

Neuronal migration and differentiation:

• Neurons travel to their correct spots in the brain

3 months: external sex organs develop and arms, legs and movement

Fetal period continued- 2nd and 3rd trimesters

2nd trimester:

• more refined movement

• 23 weeks: age of viability (can survive birth at this time)

3rd trimester:

• more growth and brain development

• correlation between prenatal heart rate and movement and later development and temperament

Teratogens

anything that can harm a baby while it's developing in the womb.

Teratogens- Drugs

Thalidomide (for morning sickness):

• all or parts of limbs missing

Nicotine/Tobacco:

• miscarriage

• low birth weight

• sids

• slows fetal growth

Alcohol:

• small

• facial deformities

• intellectual disorder

Cocaine:

• Placental detachment

• processing difficulties

• stroke

Teratogens- Diseases

Rubella:

• blindness, deafness, heart defect, death

Syphillis:

• blindess, deafness, heart problems, brain damage, death

Diabetes/gestational:

• premature, death, immature lung

AIDS/HIV: 3 mechanisms of transmission

• Through the Placenta

• Direct Contact During Birth (Perinatal Transmission)

• Through Breastfeeding (Postnatal Transmission)

Teratogens: Environmental

• Radiation

Pollutants:

• lead

• mercury

what is maternal malnutrition linked to?

• higher rates of abortion

• premature birth

• stillbirth

• later difficulties in development