BIOL 411 Lecture Notes Flashcards

Flashcards based on provided lecture notes, primarily focusing on vocabulary and key concepts.

Gamete formation

Formation of sperm and egg cells in human cells

Meiosis I vs. Meiosis II

Meiosis I separates homologous chromosomes, while Meiosis II separates sister chromatids.

Prophase I

Crossing over events occur during this phase of Meiosis

Nondisjunction

Event that can effect fertilization

Meiosis influence

Influences genetic diversity and evolution

Prophase I

The chromosomes are fully condensed and have formed chiasmata; the nuclear envelope has begun to disappear; the meiotic spindle is forming

Recombinant chromosomes

Bring alleles together in new combinations in gametes

Random fertilization

Increases even further the number of variant combinations that can be produced in gametes

Genetic variation

Is the raw material upon which natural selection works

Metaphase I

Homologous pairs line up at the metaphase plate, with one chromosome facing each pole

Anaphase I

Pairs of homologous chromosomes separate, with one chromosome moving toward each pole

Telophase I

Each half of the cell has a haploid set of chromosomes; each chromosome still consists of two sister chromatids

Cytokinesis

Usually occurs simultaneously with Telophase I, forming two haploid daughter cells

Prophase II

A spindle apparatus forms, and chromosomes move toward the metaphase plate

Metaphase II

The sister chromatids are arranged at the metaphase plate

Anaphase II

The sister chromatids separate and move toward opposite poles

Telophase II

Nuclei form, and the chromosomes begin decondensing; at the end of meiosis, there are four daughter cells, each with a haploid set of unduplicated chromosomes

Mitosis

Conserves the number of chromosome sets, producing cells that are genetically identical to the parent cell

Meiosis

Reduces the number of chromosome sets from two (diploid) to one (haploid), producing cells that differ genetically from each other and from the parent cell

Crossover in prophase I

Homologous chromosomes physically connect and exchange genetic information

Alignment of homologous pairs

Homologous pairs of chromosomes are positioned at the metaphase plate in metaphase I

Separation of homologs

Occurs during anaphase I

Homework Assignments

15% of grade

Exams

30% of grade

Final Exam

15% of grade

Discussion Boards/PLTL

10% of grade

iClicker

5% of grade

Lab

25% of grade

Final Exam - Cumulative

Questions from every week

Final Exam

85 Multiple Choice Questions

Organization of Life

Molecules to Genetic material to macromolecules to cells

Covalent Bond

A single bond, the sharing of one pair of electrons

Double Bond

The sharing of two pairs of electrons

Ionic Bonds

Formed between two oppositely charged ions

Hydrogen Bonds

The charged regions in a water molecule are due to its polar covalent bonds

pH Scale

A scale to describe how acidic or basic a solution is, from 0-14

Hydrocarbons

Organic molecules consisting of only carbon and hydrogen

ATP

An organic phosphate molecule with an important function in the cell

Dehydration Reaction

Occurs when two monomers bond together through the loss of a water molecule

Hydrolysis

Polymers are disassembled to monomers; a reaction that is essentially the reverse of the dehydration reaction

Carbohydrates

Include sugars and the polymers of sugars

Fats

Made from saturated fatty acids are called saturated fats and are solid at room temperature

Plant fats and fish fats

Are usually unsaturated

Proteins

Account for more than 50% of the dry mass of most cells

Primary Structure

Linear chain of amino acids

Secondary Structure

Regions stabilized by hydrogen bonds between atoms of the polypeptide backbone

Tertiary Structure

Three-dimensional shape stabilized by interactions between side chains

Quaternary Structure

Association of two or more polypeptides (some proteins only)

Gene

The amino acid sequence of a polypeptide is programmed by a unit of inheritance, made of DNA

DNA

A nucleic acid made of monomers called nucleotides

Eukaryotic Cell

Cell where most of the DNA is in the nucleus, an organelle that is bounded by a double membrane

Prokaryotic Cell

Characterized by having no nucleus, DNA in an unbound region called the nucleoid, and no membrane-bound organelles

Plasma Membrane

Membrane enclosing the cell

Mitochondria

Organelle where cellular respiration occurs and most ATP is generated

Chloroplasts

Photosynthetic organelle that converts energy of sunlight to chemical energy stored in sugar molecules

Passive Transport

Diffusion of a substance across a membrane with no energy investment

Diffusion

The tendency for molecules to spread out evenly into the available space

Active Transport

Requires energy for substances to cross a membrane

Enzymes

speed up chemical reactions

Catabolic Pathways

Release energy by breaking down complex molecules into simpler compounds

Anabolic Pathways

Consume energy to build complex molecules from simpler ones

Entropy

A measure of molecular disorder

Exergonic Reaction

Proceeds with a net release of free energy and is spontaneous; ΔG is negative

Competitive Inhibitors

Bind to the active site of an enzyme and prevent the substrate from binding

Noncompetitive Inhibitors

Bind to an alternate site on the enzyme, causing the active site to change shape and become less effective

Glycolysis

Set of 10 enzymatic reactions that convert Glucose into Pyruvate

Citric Acid Cycle

Completes the energy-yielding oxidation of organic molecules

Oxidative Phosphorylation

Accounts for almost 90% of the ATP generated by cellular respiration

Photosynthesis

The process that converts solar energy into chemical energy

Replication Fork

A Y-shaped region where the parental strands of DNA are being unwound

Transcription Factors

Critical for precise regulation of gene expression in different cell types