AP Comparative Gov & Politics

Comparative Politics

The study and comparison of domestic politics across countries.

International Relations

Concentrates on relations between countries (war, trade, foreign policy/aid)

Analytical Concepts

Assumptions and theories that guide research

Methods

Ways to study and test theories

Ideals

Beliefs and values about preferred outcomes

Institutions

(What comparative politics is considered with) Organizations or activities that are self-perpetuating and valued for their own sake. Play an important role in defining/shaping what is possible/probably in political life by laying out the rule, norms, and structure in which we live.

Politics

The struggle in any group for power that will give one or more persons the ability to make decisions for the larger group. This group may range from small organization to entire world. Is a competition for public power.

Power

The ability to influence others or impose one’s will on them

The Comparative Method

A way to compare cases and draw conclusions that set a guide/criteria so everything is sound.

Inductive Reasoning

The means by which we go from studying a case to generating a hypothesis. (The single case does not equal enough evidence to test). Can be the foundation for which greater theories are built.

Deductive Reasoning

Starting with a puzzle and from there generating some hypothesis about cause and effect to test against number of cases. Start with the hypothesis and then finds evidence.

Correlation

Apparent association, between certain factors and variables.

Casual Relationship

Cause and effect; When a change in one variable cause a change in another.

Multi-causality

When variables are interconnected and interact to produce a particular outcomes (“no easy answer.”)

Area Studies

A regional focus when studying political science, rather than studying parts of the world where similar variables are clustered.

Selection Bias

A focus on effects rather than causes, which can lead to inaccurate conclusions and correlation and causation.

Dependent Variable

A variable whose value changes based on another. (economic inequality causes **political revolution**).

Independent Variable

Doesn’t change based on another variable. (**economic inequality** causes political revolution).

Endogeneity

The issue that cause and effect aren’t often clear, in that variables may be both cause and effect in a casual relationship. Major obstacle in comparative research.

Theory

An integrated set of hypotheses, assumptions, and facts.

Aristotle (384 - 322 B.C.E.)

First separated politics and philosophy, compared with greek states, and used empirical study of politics with practical purpose.

Niccolò Machiavelli (1456 - 1527)

Cited as first political scientist, emphasis on statecraft and empirical evidence, analyzed/applied different political systems.

Thomas Hobbes (1588 - 1679)

Developed notion of social contract, advocated for power state.

John Locke (1632 - 1704)

Argued that private property is essential to individual freedom and prosperity. Advocated for weak state.

Charles-Louis de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu (1869 - 1755)

Studied governmental systems, advocated for separation of powers within government.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712 - 1778)

Argued that citizens rights are inalienable from the state. Influence development of civil rights, discussed in “Social Contract.”

Karl Marx (1818 - 1883)

Elaborated a theory of economic development and inequality in *Das Kapital*, predicted eventual collapse of capitalism and democracy.

Max Weber (1846 - 1920)

wrote on bureaucracy, forms of authority, and impact of culture and economic and political development.

Modernization theory

Asserts that as society develops they would take on a set of common characteristics (capitalism and democracy.) Later criticized as being used to further U.S. agenda.

Behavioral Revolution

A movement within political science during the 50s/60s to develop general theories about individual political behaviors that could be applied across all countries. **Behavioralism** hoped to generate theories that could be applied universally.

Qualitative Method

Study through an in depth investigation investigation of a limited number of cases (evidence/methodology → interviews/observations/archival).

Quantitative Method

Study through statistical data from many cases.

Rational Choice

Approach that assumes that individual weigh cost/benefit and make choices to maximize benefit.

Game Theory

Approach that emphasizes how actors or organizations behave in their goal to influence others; built upon assumption of Rational Choice.

Formal Institutions

Institutions usually based on official sanctioned rules that are relatively clear.

Informal Institutions

Institutions with unwritten and unofficial rules.

Freedom

The ability of an individual to act independently, without fear of restriction/punishment by the states/other individuals/groups in society.

Equality

A material standard of living shared by individuals within society/community/country.

Vladimir Putin

President of Russia from 1999 - 2008; Prime Minister of Russia 2008 - 2012; Current President of Russia as of 2012 (two consecutive 6 years terms, 2012 - 2024). A figure that has effectively ended democratic institutions, allocating power to himself and his supporters.

Oligarchs

Russian people noted for their control of large parts of the Russian economy (media included), their close ties to Yeltsin’s government, and accusations of corruption in conjunction with their rise to power. Under Putin’s government have now been largely divested of their wealth, driven from the country, or imprisoned. Assets, particularly natural resources, have been renationalized or transferred to individuals close to Putin.

Siloviki

“Men of Power” who have their origins in the the security services in Russia, similarly to Putin, and are close to him.

Dimitry Medvedev

President of Russia 2008 - 2012; Prime Minister of Russia 2012 - 2020; Current head of the United Russia Party. Putin’s handpicked successor as president after his 1999 - 2008 terms, under the consistent influence of Putin. There is speculation that his resignation as Prime Minister in 2020 is part of a planned restructure of executive powers, the implications of which are still unclear, but the ultimate goal is to help Putin maintain power post 2024.

Mikhail Mishustin

Relatively unknown Prime Minister who was appointed after Medvedev’s resignation in 2020, serving from 2020 - present.

Major geographical and demographic features (Russia)

It is a vast country, 11 times larger than that of the US but only has a population of 114 million (compared to US’ 500 million). The more eastward you go towards the pacific ocean the more intolerable the weather gets, meaning its population is grouped more so in the western, geographically European region of the country. The eastward region of Siberia is relatively unpopulated, the state-made cities an exception and are in part a places for those in exile. However it is rich in natural resources (oil, wood, diamonds, natural gas, gold, and nickel) that are the foundation of the Russian economy. Due to its sheer size and location it shares a border with 14+ countries, and is provided very little geographical protection. However many of those countries were formally in the Soviet Union, and are stilled considered to be underneath Russia’s sphere of influence. Shares a border with China, having historically troubled relations, and has fought with and lost to Japan over Pacific islands in 1945.

Rus

Origin of the word Russia, however referring to Vikings who settled the land in ninth century C.E. rather than the ethnically slavic people who have been there for centuries. There is debate over this as many Russians do not agree that genesis of their people was founded by foreigners.

Orthodox Christianity

A variant of christianity separated from Roman Catholic and Protestantism; originally centered in Byzantium (roughly modern-day Turkey). Practiced historically and currently in Russia. Did not separate church from state which some prescribe to stunting the idea of society working separately from the state.

Mongol Invasion (thirteenth century - fifteenth century)

The Mongols, a nomadic Asian people, first united under Genghis Khan, controlled Russia for over two centuries. During that time, Russians suffered from widespread economic destruction, massacres, enslavement, urban depopulation, and the extraction of resources. Some scholars view this occupation as the central event that set Russia on a historical path separate from that of the West—one leading to greater despotism and isolation. Cut off from European intellectual and economic influences, Russia did not participate in the Renaissance, feel the impact of the Protestant Reformation, or develop a strong middle class.

Ivan the Terrible (1547–84)

Came to power in the decades after the independence of Russia from Mongol rule. Consolidated power to Moscow over Kiev, began asserting Russia’s power towards foreign rulers and destroying governmental institutions that got in the way of his accumulation of personal power. Created a police force to terrorize his political opponents. Is viewed in Russian history as the unifier of Russia however many historians see his reign as the seeds for the repressive and capricious rule.

Tsar (Czar from latin word for Caesar)

Russian word for emperor

Peter the Great (1682 - 1725)

Introduced reforms to Russia, including the subordination of the church, the creation of regular conscripts for the army and navy, and new government structures.

Vladimir llyich Lenin (1870 - 1924)

Russian revolutionary who led the 1917 Russian Revolution and headed the Soviet Union from 1917 - 1924. Under his rule local revolutionary authority (soviets) was pushed aside, authority was vested solely in the Communist Party, which controlled all government and state activity. Alternative political parties and media were banned with the use of the Cheka. The industry was seized by the state. Managing all of this was a growing bureaucratic system composed of the nomenklatura. There was a shift from sparking communist revolutions around the world to domestic policies as the USSR grappled with the possibility that it be all alone. 1917 revolutionaries more interested in spreading revolution.

(State) Duma

The lower house of the Russian Legislature.

Soviets

Name given the the workers’ council that popped up in 1917. Pushed aside under Lenin’s rule however the new name of the country, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republic, was a superficial recognition of them.

Cheka

Soviet secret police created by Lenin to root out opposition; precursor to the KGB.

KGB

Soviet secret police the would control domestic dissent and be charged with overseas surveillance, foreign and domestic intelligence.

Nomenklatura

Politically sensitive/influential jobs in the state, society, and or economy that were staffed by people chosen or approved by the communist party

Joseph Stalin (1878 - 1953)

Succeeded Lenin as head of the Soviet Union until his death in 1953. His power grew after Lenin’s death as he slowly consolidated his power by appointing those loyal to him to high positions and demoting, imprisoning, exiling, and or executing those from Lenin’s power base. By 1930 completely consolidated power in soviet-party state politically, socially, and economically. The central planning agency completely ended private property, large impact on agriculture that led to famine (7 million casualties). Crash industrialization was used in attempt to catch up with capitalistic competition. Up to 1 million people were executed in the 1930’s no matter innocent or guilty, leading to a culture of fear. Lastly his power was solidified by a cult personality portraying him as godlike, incapable of error, infinitely wise.

illiberal democracy

A governing system in which, although elections take place, citizens are cut off from knowledge about the activities of those who exercise real power because of the lack of civil liberties; thus it does not constitute an open society.

Politburo

To policy-making and executive body of the Communist Party (Russia). Post Stalin, government still maintained power dynamic however less terrorizing.

Glasnost

“Openness,” The policy of political liberalization implemented by the Soviet Union in the late 1980s (Gorbachev). Led to dissolution of the Soviet Union (both as wildly unpopular and emboldened ethnic groups to declare themselves independent nations).

Perestroika

“restructuring,” the policy of political and economical liberalization implemented by the Soviet Union in the late 1980s (Gorbachev). Led to dissolution of the Soviet Union (both as wildly unpopular and emboldened ethnic groups to declare themselves independent nations).

Boris Yeltsin

Was Russian president 1992 -1999; an early protégé of Gorbachev’s who was sidelined as his calls for change grew more radical.

NGO

Vladimir Zhirinovsky

The founder of the ultra-right, nationalist party Liberal Democratic Party of Russia.

Anna Politkovskaya \[2006\]

a Russian journalist and human rights activist, who reported on political events in Russia, in particular, the Second Chechen War. It was her reporting from Chechnya that made Politkovskaya's national and international reputation. **Assassinated (shot):** October 7, 2006, Moscow, Russia

Aleksandr Litvinenko \[2006\]

Was a British-naturalized Russian defector and former officer of the Russian Federal Security Service who specialized in tackling organized crime. A prominent critic of Russian President Vladimir Putin, he advised British intelligence and coined the term "mafia state". **Assassinated (poisoned):** November 23, 2006, Bloomsbury, London, United Kingdom.

Sergei Magnitsky \[2009\]

Was a Ukrainian-born Russian tax advisor responsible for exposing corruption and misconduct by Russian government officials while representing client Hermitage Capital Management. **Assassinated (blunt head trauma in jail):** November 16, 2009, FKU Sledstvennyy Izolyator №1 FSIN, Moscow, Russia

Natalia Estemirova \[2009\]

Was a Russian human rights activist and board member of the Russian human rights organization Memorial. **Assassinated:** July 15, 2009, Inigushetia, Russia

Boris Nemtsov \[2015\]

was a Russian physicist, liberal politician, and outspoken critic of Vladimir Putin, whose life and activist career ended with his assassination in Moscow. In an earlier chapter of his political career, he was involved in the introduction of reforms into the Russian post-Soviet economy.

Yegor Gaidar

was a Soviet and Russian economist, politician, and author, and was the Acting Prime Minister of Russia from 15 June 1992 to 14 December 1992. Was responsible for economic “shock therapy.”

A Just Russia - For Truth

is a social conservative and social-democratic political party in Russia. The party, part of the "systemic opposition", is considered to be pro-Kremlin.

Yabloko

The Communist Party of the Russian Federation (CPRF)

Is a left-wing nationalist and communist political party in Russia that officially adheres to Marxist–Leninist philosophy. It is the second-largest political party in Russia after United Russia. The youth organization of the party is the Leninist Young Communist League. Successor to the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.

Russian Legislative-Executive System

semi presidential (r)

Russian Legislature

Federal Assembly

Upper House (Appointed by local executive and legislature): Federation Council

Lower House (Proportional representation): State Duma

Russian Distribution of Power

Federal (r)

Russia Main Geographical Subunits

Republics, provinces, territories, autonomous districts, federal cities (Moscow and St. Petersburg).

Russian Chief Judicial Body

Constitutional Court

Kremlin

11th century fortress in the heart of Moscow that has been the historical seat of Russian state power. Currently much of the Kremlin’s power is vested in the hands of the president as established by the 1993 constitution.

Russian President

Holds an overwhelming amount of executive power, serves a six year term (can only serve two consecutive terms and can be impeached). Chooses/dismisses the prime minister and other members of the cabinet, the legislature can reject a pm nominee but if done 3 times then the Duma will be dissolved for new elections (this dissolution cannot happen in the last six months of a presidents term). Appoints leaders to eight federal districts that make up all of Russia, allowing oversee on workings of local authorities. Can propose/veto bills, issue decrees: not often public knowledge + citizen cannot challenge in court. Has direct control over the armed forces, the Interior Ministry (handles police and domestic security), Defense Ministry, Foreign Ministry, and the Federal Security Service (FSB)

Chechnya

Russian Republic that has been a source of military conflict since 1991.

Russian Prime Minister

Role is to supervise ministries not under presidential control, to propose legislation to parliament that upholds the presidents policy goals, promulgates the national budget. Is not elected or needing to represent the parties in the parliament.

Parties of Power

Russian parties created by the political elites to support their political aspirations; typically lacking any ideological orientation.

United Russia

Main political party in Russia and supporter of Vladimir Putin

Caucasus

Southwest Russia, near the black sea and Turkey, where there is a diverse mixture of non-slavic people with distinct languages and customs as well as a much stronger historical connection with Islam than Orthodox Christianity.

Shock Therapy

A process of rapid marketization that rapidly dismantled central planning and freed up prices with hope of stimulating competition and the creation of new businesses. Immediate result was hyperinflation. The process of privatization started with distribution of vouchers to the public so Russians could purchase shares that would give them ownership in formally state-owned businesses.

Insider Privatization

A process in Russia whereby the former nomenklatura directors of firms were able to acquire the largest number of shares when those firms were privatized during shock therapy.

Mikhail Khodrokovsky

Oligarch arrested and imprisoned for opposition to Putin.

Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU)

Called for by Putin (during his campaign to return to presidency) for economic and political integration. An economic and political union among several former Soviet states.

Brexit

British exit from the European Union, realized in a 2016 referendum.

Margaret Thatcher

Conservative UK Prime Minister from 1979 -1990

Conservatives (Tories)

One the the UK’s two largest parties, in power 2010-present.

Labor Party

One of the Uk’s two largest parties, opposition as of 2010.

Third Way

Term describing recent policies of Labor party, embracing free market.

David Cameron

Conservative Prime Minister of UK (2010 - 2016); resigned post Brexit as he advocated against it.

Theresa May

Conservative Prime Minister of UK (2016 - 2019)

Boris Johnson

Conservative Prime Minister of UK (2019 - 2022) instrumental in Brexit.

The Acts of Union

the term United Kingdom came into official use in 1801 due to this, it united the kingdoms of Britain and Ireland

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

Formal name for the UK since the 1920s.

Great Britain

Consists of England, Scotland, and Wales