Psychology Ch. 4/5/9

Learning

The processes through which people and animals acquire enduring changes in their behaviors as a result of experience.

Conditioning

The process of learning associations between environmental events and behavioral responses

Classical conditioning

Learning process that occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired; a response that is at first elicited by the second stimulus is eventually elicited by the first stimulus alone.

Stimulus generalization

the occurrence of a learned response not only similar to the original stimulus but to other similar stimuli

Extinction

the gradual weakening and apparent disappearance of conditioned behavior

Spontaneous recovery

reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response after a period of time without exposure to the conditioned stimulus

Behaviorism

The school of psychology that emphasizes the study of observable behaviors, especially as they pertain to the process of learning

Placebo response

a response to what is actually fake treatment or drug

Taste aversion

a learned avoidance of a particular food that may only take one exposure

Law of Effect (Thorndike)

behavior followed by satisfying consequences are strengthened and would then be repeated

Operant conditioning

The basic learning process that involves changing the probability that a response will be repeated by manipulating the consequences of that response

Reinforcement

In operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

Primary reinforcer

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need

Punishment

an event that decreases the behavior that it follows

Shaping

procedure of selectively reinforcing closer approximations of a desired goal behavior until the goal behavior is displayed

Partial reinforcement

reinforcing a response only part of the time

Behavior modification

application of learning principles to help people develop more effective or adaptive behaviors

latent learning

learning that remains hidden until its application becomes useful or a reinforcer becomes available

Learned helplessness

a phenomenon in which exposure to inescapable and uncontrollable aversive events produces passive behavior

Learning styles

the idea, not supported by research, that people differ with regard to what mode of instruction is most effective for them

Observational learning

learning that occurs through observing the actions of others

Mirror neurons

cells that become activated both when individuals perform a motor act and when they observe the same motor act done by another individual

William James

Described consciousness as a stream or river. Consciousness allows people to develop a sense of personal identity that has continuity over time and to integrate past, present, and future behavior.

Consciousness

Personal awareness of mental activities, internal sensations, and the external environment.

Levels of Consciousness

Conscious, preconscious, unconscious

Conscious

Immediate awareness

Preconscious

Not immediate awareness

Unconscious

Unaware

Attention

The capacity to selectively focus senses and awareness on particular stimuli or aspects of the environment.

Multitasking

Divides your attention and creates less attention for each task. It is less likely to cause interference when significant task variation is present.

Melatonin

Produced by the pineal gland and it helps with falling asleep.

The two types of sleep are:

REM and NREM

REM

Called rapid-eye-movement sleep. Sleep during which rapid eye movements and reaming usually occur and voluntary muscle activity is suppressed.

NREM

Called non-rapid-eye-movement sleep. Quiet, typically dreamless sleep in which rapid eye movements are absent

Myoclonic Jerk

Involuntary but harmless full-body spasm that jolts the person awake

Beta brain waves

Brain-wave pattern associated with alert wakefulness

Alpha brain waves

Brain-wave pattern associated with relaxed wakefulness and drowsiness

Circadian rhythm

A roughly 24-hour-long cycle of fluctuations in biological and psychological processes

Sleep hygiene

Pattern of sleep, enough sleep to do the things you need to do, routine to fall asleep

Sleep Stages

• Stage 1 NREM Sleep: Mixture of alpha and theta brain waves, drifting/floating sensation

• Stage 2 NREM Sleep: Sleep spindles, K complexes, theta brain waves, and beginnings of delta waves, very sensitive to noise

• Stage 3/4 NREM Sleep: Delta brain waves, deep stages: night terrors, sleepwalking, talking, eating, sex, etc…

______ increases throughout the sleep stages.

REM

Hans Berger

Invented the electroencephalograph (EEG). This advanced the scientific study of sleep.

Insomnia

A condition in which a person regularly experiences an inability to fall asleep, to stay asleep, or to feel adequately rested by sleep

Narcolepsy

A sleep disorder categorized by excessive daytime sleepiness and brief lapses into episodes of sleep throughout the day

Sleep Apnea

A sleep disorder in which the person repeatedly stops breathing during sleep

Sleep Terrors

A sleep disturbance involving an episode of increased psychological arousal, panic, frightening hallucinations, and no recall of the episode

Paranoias

Undesired arousal or actions during sleep: sleep terrors, sleep sex, sleepwalking, sleep eating disorder

Sleepwalking

A sleep disturbance characterized by an episode of walking or performing other actions during stage 3 NREM sleep

Hypnagogic Hallucinations

Vivid sensory phenomena that occur during the onset of sleep

Sleep Paralysis

A temporary condition in which a person is unable to move upon awakening in the morning or during the night

Why is sleep important?

Clearing brain metabolic waste products, maintaining immune function, learning and memory, and regulating mood.

Meditation

Using a mental or physical technique to induce a state of focused attention and heightened awareness

Hypnosis

A cooperative social interaction in which the hypnotized person responds to the hypnotist’s suggestions with changes in perception, memory, thoughts, and behavior

What is drug tolerance when it comes to addiction?

A condition in which increasing amounts of a physically addictive drug are needed to produce the original, desired effect

Depressants

Drugs that depress, or inhibit, brain activity: alcohol, barbiturates, tranquilizers

Stimulants

Drugs that stimulate, or excite, brain activity, arouse behavior, and increase mental awareness: caffeine, nicotine, amphetamines, cocaine, meth, dexedrine, benzedrine

Psychedelics

Drugs that distort sensory perceptions: mescaline, LSD, marijuana, psilocybin, MDMA, ecstasy

Effects of consuming alcoholic beverages

Lowered alertness, release of inhibitions, impaired judgment, slowed reaction times, impaired motor function, less caution, possible death

How many stages of sleep?

Three

What is the deep stage of sleep?

Stage 3

How many cycles of sleep do you normally get each night?

5

After being deprived of sleep, you can have episodes of sleep while you are normally awake. This is called ________.

Microsleep

Physical Dependence

When the body and brain chemistry have physically adapted to a drug; can’t function without the chemical in your body

Withdrawal Symptoms

Unpleasant physical reactions to the lack of the drug and intense craving for it

Drug Rebound Effect

The reemergence of symptoms that were repressed while taking medication

Drug Abuse

Misuse of drugs

Change in Reward Circuitry

Production of dopamine activated by addictive drugs

Addiction

A broad term that refers to a condition in which a person feels psychologically and physically compelled to take a specific drug

Opioids

Drugs that are chemically similar to morphine and that relieve pain and produce euphoria; fentanyl, oxycontin, heroin, morphine, codeine, methadone

Dissociative Anesthetic

PCP, ketamine (special K)

Ivan Pavlov

Discovered and studied classical conditioning. Reflexive response; Formation of associations.

John Watson

Founded a new approach called behaviorism. Advocated scientific study of objectively observed behavior. Believed all human behavior is the result of conditioning and learning.

Unconditioned Stimulus

The natural stimulus that reflexively elicits a response without the need for prior learning

Unconditioned Response

The unlearned, reflexive, response that is elicited by an unconditioned stimulus

Conditioned Stimulus

A formerly neutral stimulus that acquires the capacity to elicit a reflexive response

Conditioned Response

A learned response to a previously neutral stimulus

Little Albert Experiment

Exposed baby to furry objects and a loud bang, causing the baby to react negatively to any furry object

B.F. Skinner

Was a behaviorist who searched for the “lawful processes” that would explain “order in behavior”

Positive Reinforcement

A situation in which a response is followed by the addition of a reinforcing stimulus, increasing the likelihood that the response will be repeated in similar situations

Negative Reinforcement

A situation in which a response results in the removal of, avoidance of, or escape from an aversive, or undesired, stimulus, increasing the likelihood that the response will be repeated in similar situations

Schedules of Reinforcement

The delivery of a reinforcer according to a present pattern based on the number of responses or the time interval between responses

Ratio Schedules

Reinforcement is delivered after a certain number of responses

Interval Schedules

Reinforcement is delivered after a certain interval, or amount of time, has elapsed

Bobo Doll Experiment

Children watched a film showing an adult playing aggressively with an inflated Bobo doll. If they saw the adult rewarded with candy for the aggressive behavior or experienced no consequences, the children were much more likely to imitate the behavior than if they saw the adult being punished for the aggressive behavior.

Zygote

The single cell formed at conception from the union of the egg cell and sperm cell

Chromosomes (X and Y)

Biological sex is determined by the 23rd pair of chromosomes, the sex chromosomes. While every egg cell has one X chromosome, every sperm cell has either one X or one Y chromosome. Whether a zygote develops into a male or a female depends on whether the egg is fertilized by a sperm cell with a Y chromosome (XY, resulting in a male) or by a sperm cell with an X chromosome (XX, resulting in a female).

DNA

Stores the inherited information that guides the development of all living organisms

Gene

A unit of DNA on a chromosome that encodes instructions for making a particular protein molecule

Genotype

The genetic makeup of an individual organism

Phenotype

The observable traits or characteristics of an organism as determined by the interaction of genetics and environmental factors

Epigenetics

The observable traits or characteristics of an organism as determined by the interaction of genetics and environmental factors

Stem cells

Cells that can divide indefinitely, renew themselves, and give rise to a variety of other types of cells

Conception

Chromosomes from the biological mother and father combine to form a single cell, the fertilized egg or zygote

Monozygotic/Identical twins

One fertilized egg (ovum) splits and develops into two babies with identical genetic information

Dizygotic/Fraternal twins

Two eggs (ova) are fertilized by two sperm and produce two genetically unique children

Developmental Psychology

The study of how people change physically, cognitively, and socially throughout the lifespan

Basic Stages of Development

Prenatal: Conception to birth

Infancy and toddlerhood: Birth to 2 years

Early childhood: 2 to 6 years

Middle childhood: 6 to 12 years

Adolescence: 12 to 18 years

Emerging adulthood: 18 to 25 years

Young adulthood: 25 to 40 years

Middle adulthood: 40 to 65 years

Late adulthood: 65 years to death

Prenatal Stage

The stage of development before birth that is divided into the germinal, embryonic, and fetal period

Amniotic sac

A fluid-filled house that protects the embryo

Umbilical cord

Delivers nourishment, oxygen, and water and carries away carbon dioxide and other wastes