Chapter 6

Observational Methods

Observational research

• Naturalistic observation (field observation)

• Systematic observation

• Contrived (set-up) observation

• Participant observation

Naturalistic observation

Observing behaviors as they naturally occur, often over extended periods

• Provides rich, qualitative data and excellent ecological validity—but typically challenging to quantify

Systematic observation

Focuses on specific, pre-defined behaviors using structured coding systems

• Makes data quantifiable and hypothesis-driven, but may miss unexpected behaviors

Contrived observation

Behavior is observed in controlled settings—either in a lab or orchestrated field context

• Offers control and repeatability but may reduce naturalness

Participant observation

The researcher becomes part of the group being studied—offering insider insight, but introducing the risk of losing objectivity and ethical complexities

Quantitative

Emphasizes counting clearly defined behaviors across potentially large samples, enabling statistical analysis

• example: recording frequency of sharing among preschoolers

Qualitative

Focuses on rich, descriptive accounts of behaviors in context—like detailed field notes or narrative summaries—often from small samples

Coding systems

Essential for systematic observation—researchers define and operationalize behaviors into specific categories and recording procedures

Reactivity

When individuals alter behavior because they’re being observed

• Mitigated through unobtrusive or disguised observation techniques

Observer bias

• Subjective expectations may skew what the observer notices or records

• Use “blind” observers and inter-rater reliability checks to reduce bias

Reliability

Consistency among observers (inter-rater reliability) or consistency in the same observer (intra-rater reliability) ensure measurement stability

Ecological validity

Naturalistic observation excels here as behaviors are observed in real-life settings, increasing the generalizability to real-world contexts