ap psych chapter 7

language

the way we communicate meaning (spoken, written, or gestured) to ourselves and others

Phonemes

the smallest distinctive units of sound used in a language

morphemes

The smallest units of meaning in a language.

grammar

in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others

semantics

the set rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences

overregulation

occurs when children apply a grammatical rule too widely and therefore created incorrect forms

syntax

the rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences

receptive language

the ability to understand language. \***Wernicke's area in the brain allows you to understand language.

productive language

the ability to produce language (Broca's Area)

babbling

universal noises made by babies around the age of 4 months. this is NOT the household language. that is revealed at 10 months

holophrase

one-word phrases babies make around the age of 12 months

telegraphic speech

two word phrases babies make around the age of 2

critical period

if children are not exposed to language before a certain age, they will be unable to acquire language

universal grammar

All human languages have the same grammatical building blocks, such as nouns and verbs, subjects and objects, negations and questions

language acquisition device

innate speech-enabling structures in the brain that allow us to learn language (Noam Chomsky)

surface structure

learning ABCs, just the letters and layout of the words

deep structure

combining words to make meanings (like deep processing)

linguistic determinism

thinking affects our language, which in turn affects our thoughts

B.F Skinner

argues that language acquisition is based on the principles of operant conditioning- babies imitate sounds and then are reinforced

Noam Chomsky

a linguist who argues that young children possess an innate capability to learn and produce speech. Believes that children in widely different cultures progress through the same stages of language development at about the same age. Believes in the language acquisition device. \***Nature point of view.

Benjamin Whorf

a linguist who believed that a language does more than describe a person's culture. He argued that a person's language may also shape a person's thoughts and perceptions (linguistic determinism).

Metacognition

thinking about thinking

cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

concepts

a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

definitions

some concepts fit into a group because of their definition. Ex. by definition, a triangle has 3 sides

hierarchies

breaking things down from broad to specific. Superordinate (broad category), basic (most common), or subordinate (specific) Ex. Fruit \> apple \> Granny Smith

prototypes

A mental image or best example that incorporates all the features we associate with a category

schemas

an organized mental framework about a particular topic, event, object, idea, setting, or group of people

trial and error

just trying any method to solve an answer. Ex. typing in random numbers to figure out a pin number for an ATM card

means-end analysis

breaking a problem into subgoals in order to reach the ultimate goal

algorithm

A logical, step-by-step procedure that, if followed correctly, will eventually solve a specific problem.

Heuristic

A general rule of thumb or shortcut that is used to reduce the number of possible solutions.

insight

just coming up with the answer, the aha moment

Fixation

having a preoccupation with something, not being able to stop thinking of it

mental set

the tendency to continue using belief systems and problem-solving strategies that have worked int he past, even though it may not be working now

functional fixedness

the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an impediment to problem solving

availability heuristic

judging a situation based on examples of similar situations that come to mind initially

representativeness heuristic

judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information

anchoring effect

the tendency to be influenced by a reference point. Ex. only buying a car because it's the color you want even though it has a lot of miles

framing

posing a question or wording a phrase in such a way to persuade someone's thoughts. Ex/ buying something because its 95% fat free sounds better than 5% faat

Bias

having preexisting positions or beliefs about events, people, etc

confirmation bias

A preference for information that confirms preexisting positions or beliefs, while ignoring or discovering contradictory evidence.

belief perseverance

holding onto a belief even after its been discredited. Ex. believing that fad diets work.

hindsight bias

also known as the knew-it-all-along effect or creeping determinism, is the inclination, after an event has occurred, to see the event as having been predictable, despite there having been little or no objective basis for predicting it.

overconfidence bias

the tendency to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments

exaggerated fear

being overly fearful of something to the point of a phobia. Availability heuristic plays a part in this

brainstorm

coming up with new ideas

creativity

The ability to make or bring a new concept or idea into existence; marked by the ability or power to create.

divergent thinking

a type of thinking in which problem solvers devise a number of possible alternative approaches to problems and multiple solutions, it involves taking risks

convergent thinking

using logic and algorithms to solve problems, there is only one answer, doesn't see things from various perspectives

inductive reasoning

reasoning from the specific to the general

deductive reasoning

general to specific

**schema**

mental representation of a set of connected ideas

memory

It is learning that has continued over time

information-processing model

The first step is for the brain to receive information in a usable form in order to maintain it in consciousness or prepare it for storage in a process called encoding. The second step is the manipulation and rehearsal of information so that it can be stored. The final step is the retrieval of the information, recalling stored memories.

parallel processing / dual processing

interpreting numerous events and stimuli at the same time

multi-store model

the sensory register (SR), short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM)

iconic memory

fleeting visual images

**echoic memory**

auditory signals

**Selective** or **focused attention**

voluntarily focus on a portion of our sensory input while ignoring other inputs

**cocktail party effect**

we are able to filter out nearly everything except that which is most important to us

short-term memory (STM

* This stage of the memory process is a kind of mental “scratch pad.” Short-term memory is very sensitive and vulnerable to interruption or interference.
* small amounts of information are stored for up to thirty seconds or so in short-term

Long-term memory (LTM)

the final stage and the type of memory that can store information indefinitely, often based on its relative importance to the individual.

Encoding

taking stimuli from the environment and converting it into a form or construct that the brain can understand and use

Episodic memories

the stories of our lives and experiences that we can recall (like episodes of a television show) and tell to someone else

Semantic memories

impersonal memories that are not drawn from personal experiences but rather from everyday, common kinds of knowledge, such as the names of colors, the names of the states, and other basic facts you learn over the course of your life

**Procedural memories**

memories of how to do something, such as ride a bike, bake cookies, create code for a computer, tie your shoes, and all the other tasks you have learned

**automatic processing**

information-processing of much-repeated or well-learned activities that occurs without our being aware of it

**implicit memories**

retain without conscious effort and often without our awareness

**priming**

using cues to activate hidden memories

**Effortful processing**

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

**explicit memory**

past knowledge that is consciously brought to mind

**working memory**

the limitation of information it can retain and the limited time frame in which the information can be recalled—about ten to twenty seconds

**Memory span**

the number of items a person can remember and repeat back using attention and short-term memory

**digit span**

the longest list of numbers that can be remembered and repeated back

Relearning

a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again. (Hermann Ebbinghaus)

**recall**

a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.

**recognition**

a measure of memory in which the person identifies items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test.

Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

is the feeling that a memory is available but not quite retrievable.

**hippocampus**

a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process for storage explicit (conscious) memories of facts and events.

Explicit memories (declarative)

our conscious memories of facts and experiences—develop with effortful processing, which requires conscious effort and attention.

Implicit memories (non declarative)

of skills and classically conditioned associations—happen without our awareness, through automatic processing

Deep processing

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention

Rehearsal

the repetition of information in an attempt to maintain it longer in memory

Rote learning

uses strict memorization without comprehension, which tends to result in poorer retention than occurs with strategies that rely on higher level cognitive mechanisms

Spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice.

Serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last (recency effect) and first (primacy effect) items in a list.

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. Also referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning.

Chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically.

hierarchies

A basic theory of the organization of long-term memory is hierarchies. The hierarchies' theory contends that long-term memory is organized through a hierarchical arrangements of concepts. Concepts may represent physical objects, events, attributes, or abstractions.

Method of Loci

The technique involves envisioning a location or physical space that you are extremely familiar with. In this location you attach the terms and information you are memorizing to various locations/spots within that place.

Visual encoding

the neural processes by which stimuli seen in the external world are converted into internal (mental) representations that can subsequently be processed and stored in memory.

Imagery

type of thinking that has particularly strong effects on our emotions

Rosy retrospection

our tendency to recall the past more fondly than the present, all else being equal.

Mnemonics

any device or technique used to assist memory, usually by forging a link or association between the new information to be remembered and information previously encoded.

semantic encoding

the conversion of a non-verbal mental representation (the reference) into a semantic structure suitable for expression (the sense)

acoustic encoding

the processing and encoding of sound, words, and other auditory input for storage and later retrieval.

Atkinson-Shiffrin Memory Model

if memories in the short-term store are rehearsed, they will be encoded into the long-term store

Magical #7+/-2

provides evidence for the capacity of short term memory. Most adults can store between 5 and 9 items in their short-term memory

Absent-mindedness

lapses of attention and forgetting to do things