Comparative Politics Midterm Exam Review

Comparative Politics Introduction & Britain

What is Comparative Politics? Why does Comparative Politics matter?

Comparative politics is the field within political science that focuses on domestic politics of countries and analyzes patterns of similarity and difference among countries. Comparative Politics connects the local and the global to create an interconnected world. For instance, events in one country can have far-reaching political, economic, and security consequences. It matters because as a global power, the US must understand other countries to be able to craft effective policy. 

Example: iPhones - the chip for an iPhone can be from Taiwan, the leather can be from Japan, but the importance is that each country can play a role in something so significant to every day life. 

How do we study Comparative Politics?

We can study comparative politics through qualitative and quantitative tools, case studies, historical analysis, statistical modeling, and fieldwork to generate and generalize insights. Through News websites such as BBC, or statistical analysis websites such as the World Bank, are how ‘comparativists’ find all differing perspectives and views to assess multiple countries and issues within countries. 

What is the key concept/central idea of Comparative Politics?

Power is the key concept. Power is the ability to impose your will on others through coercion or persuasion. PSI stands for power, security, & interest. 

Explain the Evolution of Comparative Politics

Pre World War II, the Institutional-Legal Tradition dominated the field of Comparative Politics. This focused on constitutions, laws, and formal government structures/institutions in Western countries. This tradition treated institutions as the shaping of political behavior and outcome, instead of focusing on individual actions within those systems. Studies were largely descriptive and normative. Descriptive meant detailing the structures and functions of different governments; Normative meant using subjective language to discuss what constituted “good governance” based on Western models.

America had very little influence prior to WWII. While England declined as a major global power, the US went from a Regional to a Global power. Being a Global powered allowed the US Government to want to know more about Middle East, Africa, and Latin America; showing that they wanted to fully understand. 

Behavioral Revolution (1950s-1960s): Rejected the institutional school. Emphasized empirical, cross-national studies of political behavior using surveys and statistical tools. Wanted to incorporate a focus on societal actors and have more comparative analysis.

What is Dependency Theory (1960s-1970s)? Give an example.

Dependency Theory was a critique of modernization theory, arguing that the global capitalist systems structurally disadvantaged poor “peripheral” nations for the benefit of wealthy, “core” nations. Explains persistent inequalities by emphasizing how resources taken from developing countries were funneling into developed countries which created a cycle of dependence. 

Explain Empirical and Normative Theories. Give Examples. 

Empirical theories are a collection of data; uses scientific methods and observable, verifiable data to describe and explain political phenomena, such as institutions, processes, and behaviors, instead of prescribing how they ‘should’ be. An example of empirical theory is studying the relationship between campaign spending and election outcomes. 

Normative theories can be described as ‘what is good governance’. Meaning that normative approaches focus on value judgments and prescriptive statements. Aim to prescribe political actions and policies. An example of normative theory is arguing that democracy is the most desirable form of government.

Define State Power. Give an example.

State Power is the legitimate use of violence. A state’s power depends on its ability to legitimize its rule, meaning people comply because they believe it is the right thing to do. 

Define Military Power. Give an example.

Military power is the ability to project force or defend territory. Often measured by factors such as the size of a country’s armed forces, the quality of its weapons, and its ability to project force globally. 

Example: The US Military possesses nuclear weapons and missile defense systems which contributes to its military advantage. Also, they have the capability to project power anywhere using its global network of bases and allies. 

Define Economic Power. Give an example. 

Economic power is control over resources, production, & markets. 

Example: Major economic powers such as the US and China use their GDP, global trade relationships, and investment capabilities to shape international policies and gain influence. 

Example: Companies like Apple and Samsung use economic power by creating innovative products that attract customers through voluntary exchange. 

Define Technological Power. Give an example.

Technological power is the mastery of innovation and infrastructure. 

Example: China, through different tech companies, has developed 5G technology and built vast infrastructure networks. Giving China influence over global communication systems.

Define Informational Power. Give an example.

Informational power is control over narratives, media, and data.

Example: Russian interference in Western elections - used digital networks and social media platforms to interfere with democratic processes in other countries. 

Define Ideological/Religious Power. Give an example. 

Ideological/Religious power is the ability to shape beliefs, values, and identities.

Example: Authoritarianism in China - The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) relies on ideological power to legitimize its one-party rule. CCP promotes an ideology based on teachings of Karl Marx and Mao Zedong, focusing on economic equality and class struggle. 

What are the origins of the word “Democracy”? The roots of Democracy?

The origins of the word ‘Democracy’ comes from ancient Greek: dēmos (people) and kratos (power of rule) which means ‘rule by the people’. The term was first coined in the 5th century BCE in Athens, where eligible Athenian males directly voted on laws and policies; radical departure from Monarchy & Aristocracy. 

• Monarchy: Rule by King

• Aristocracy: Rule by male or land/slave owners

Cleisthenes is the ‘father of Athenian democracy’. He weakened aristocratic power & enabled broader citizen participation. Pericles expanded democratic institutions and saw democracy as promoting civic responsibility & merit-based leadership. Merit-based meant qualified to do what was asked of. 

*Both Cleisthenes and Pericles advocated inclusive decision making but ONLY citizens for creating a strong & stable polis. Believed that when citizens have a voice, they are more invested in defending the political system. 

Explain the Rise & Fall of Democracy within the Athenian nature. 

The rise of democracy flourished in the 5th century BCE due to Cleisthenes and Pericles reforms. However, it was overthrown by the Peloponnesian War in 411 BCE and 404 BCE, & collpased under Macedonian domination in 322 BCE. 

• Peloponnesian War (431-404 BCE): a near 30-year conflict between the Athenians and Spartans. Conflict with Sparta strained Athenian finances; military defeats and financial turmoil destabilized the government. Athens was a democratic society, but Sparta was an oligarchic society. In Athens, adult male citizens had considerable political power and participated in huge assemblies & court trials as often as they wanted. In Sparta, a small group of educated, elite men held office and used their station to govern the city-state. Sparta’s victory was followed by Athen's’ temporary loss of democracy. 

• The Thirty Tyrants (404 BCE): Following Athen’s defeat in the Peloponnesian War, Sparta imposed a oligarchy known as the Thirty Tyrants. An oligarchic group of men who ruled the Athenian government for eight months following the war’s end. Regime characterized by executions, imprisonment, and patriotism-fueled violence towards Athenian citizens. Eventually overthrown by a band of Athenian exiles with the support of Theban aid; democracy was restored in 403 BCE. 

Collapsed under Macedonian domination in 322 BCE. Was limited to a small segment of the population and excluded women, slaves, and foreigners. Its collapse exposed vulnerabilities in direct democracy, however its principles influenced later democracy thought in Rome, Enlightenment Europe, and modern republics.

• Direct Democracy: for male citizens ONLY - no King & citizen participation 

Explain the Disappearance of Democracy within the Athenian nature. 

After Classical Greece period and the fall of Athens, democracy disappeared. It was replaced by monarchies, empires, and aristocratic rule. However, it did survive as an idea, citizen participation, hence voting rights today. 

• Empires: interests go far beyond your country 

• Monarch: both ruled by somebody with absolute power

PSI (power, security, and interest) is demonstrated in Empires and Monarchies.

Why was Plato against Democracy? What was Plato’s interpretation & opposition?

Due to Plato witnessing the decline of Athenian democracy and execution of Socrates, his critique was grounded in real experience with both democracy’s volatility and oligarchy’s brutality. Plato believes and says we need qualified people: knowledge + wisdom thinkers.

• Distrust of the Masses: Plato believed democracy handed power to the ignorant majority, enabling demagogues to manipulate public opinion and undermine wise governance.

• Philosopher-King Ideal: In ‘The Republic’ , Plato argued that only Philosopher Kings - those guided by reason and knowledge - were fit to rule, not the general populace swayed by passion and desire.

  • Good governance is which is ruled by Philosopher-King, guided with reason & knowledge

Normative theory is driven by reason and for what ‘ought to be - what our government should do; whereas, Empirical theory is a collection of data/confirmation

When discussing the rebirth of Democracy, explain the importance of John Locke, Montesquieu, and Rousseau. How do they relate to democracy and why?

In the rebirth of Democracy (modern), it was revived in early modern Europe consisting of enlightenment thinkers reimagining democracy around rights, consent of the governed (which did not exist in Athens), and constitutional limits on power. 

• John Locke: legitimate government must be based on the consent of the governed and the protect of natural rights- life, liberty, and property. his ideas influenced liberal constitutionalism and the American Revolution; Locke’s ideas influenced the development of democratic principles in modern governance by advocating for natural rights and government accountability. Believed that consent of governed underlines the democratic ideal that authority should be based on popular and majority support. 

• Baron de Montesquieu: advocated the separation of powers among legislative, executive, and judicial branches to prevent tyranny. Laid work for modern checks & balances in democratic systems. He believed dividing authority amongst different branches would prevent any single entity from gaining too much control. This shaped modern democracies, specifically in the US.

  • Checks and Balances - no single branch of gov. can dominate. In the US, Congress (legislative) makes laws, the President (executive) enforces them, and the Supreme Court (judicial) interprets them. Each branch has specific powers and can check the others’ actions, which was Montesquieu’s vision for a balanced system to protect democracy.

• Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Emphasized popular sovereignty and the “general will”, arguing that true democracy requires direct participation and that laws should reflect the collective interest of the people. Rousseau’s ideas on the social contract and the general will were influential in the French Revolution, as they provided a philosophical justification for the overthrow of the monarchy. Challenged traditional view of the state and presented a new vision of political authority based on the consent of the governed.

  • Sovereignty - in a country, state is the ultimate authority as to how the place should be run.

Explain the evolution of British Democracy: Magna Carta

Royal control increased after 1066, but the conduct King John (1199-1216) fueled opposition from feudal barons. In 1215, they forced him to consent to a series of concessions that protected feudal landowners from abuses of royal power. These restrictions were embodied in the Magna Carta, a historic statement of the rights of a political community against the monarchical state. Served as the inspiration for constitutions around the world that contain protections for citizens and groups from the arbitrary exercise of state power.

• Magna Carta (1215): Limited the King’s power and established the principle that rulers are subject to the law, planting early seeds for constitutional government. 

  • Limited king’s power to impose taxes

The Magna Carta was important because it laid the foundation for constitutional government. The key principles of no king being above the law and taxation requiring consent were expanded to citizens.

Explain the evolution of British Democracy: The Glorious Revolution (1688) and the Bill of Rights (1689)

By the 16th and 17th centuries, Britain was embroiled in a complex interplay of religious conflicts, national rivalries, and struggles between rulers and Parliament. These conflicts erupted in the civil wars of the 1640s, and later forced the removal of James II in 1688. This was the last successful revolution in British history. 

• Glorious Revolution (1688): resolved long standing religious conflict. 

These events curtailed absolute monarchy and established parliamentary supremacy, and that legitimate government must be accountable to representative institutions. 

This revolution is very important because it ended any notion of absolute monarchy in England. Confirmed that monarch’s ruled with Parliament’s consent and solidified Protestant succession in the monarchy.

• The English Bill of Rights (1689): a constitutional document passed by Parliament and accepted by William and Mary as a condition of their rule. The key provisions were that Parliament must approve laws and taxes, free elections and freedom of speech in Parliament, and bans on cruel and unusual punishment and excessive bail. 

This is important because it codified constitutional monarchy and later became a model for later democratic documents, for instance, the US Bill of Rights. 

Explain the evolution of British Democracy: The Rise of Parliamentary Government (18th-19th centuries)

Rise of Parliamentary Government: England evolved into a constitutional monarchy where elected officials, not monarch, govern, helping shape the model of representative democracy adopted worldwide. 

• Power shifted from monarch to elected representatives in Parliament 

• Role of Prime Minister emerged - Robert Walpole, early 1700s 

• Political parties formed 

• The Reforms Acts of the 19th century gradually expanded voting rights 

This is important because this turned Britain into a representative democracy. The House of Commons became the center of political power; political accountability and public participation increased. 

The Supremacy of the Parliament means that it is a sovereign law-making body in the UK. No one, not monarchs or courts, can override Parliament’s laws. This guarantees that power is not concentrated in one person or institution. 

What is a ‘Revolution’?

Sudden and violent change in government structure & constitution that is brought upon by the participation of the non-governing classes.

1. quick/sudden

2. violent - want to replace governing elites - revolutionaries want to change relations between state and social classes

3. change structure of government & constitution

4. movement supported by non-governing elites

What is the French Revolution and its relation to democracy?

French Revolution and Democracy:

• Declaration of the Rights of Man (1789): Asserted the principles of liberty, equality, and popular sovereignty, establishing a moral and legal foundation for democratic change. 

  • Declared all men equal under law

  • Affirmed liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression 

• Slogan of the French Revolution: Liberté, Egalité, Fraternité - expressing the ideas of liberty, equality before law, and solidarity among citizens.

• Abolition of Monarchy: Revolution ended centuries of absolute monarchy and attempted to replace it with republican forms of governance rooted in the will of the people.

• Tensions & Radicalism: The revolution advanced democratic ideals, revealed dangers of unchecked populism, functionalism, and authoritarian responses (Reign of Terror & Rise of Napoleon).

  • Reign of Terror: a period of extreme political violence during the French Revolution. Believed terror was necessary to protect the revolution from its enemies. Thousands of people were executed by guillotine, including King Louis XVI. People could be executed for speaking against the revolution, being aristocrats, or disloyalty. This showed how revolutionary ideals could be twisted into authoritarian control. 

  • Rise of Napoleon: ascent of brilliant military leader, Napoleon’s rise marked the end of the French Revolution and the beginning of a new era in European politics. Promised stability, order, and glory after years of chaos. Ended the French Revolution and began authoritarian rule.

What is the American War of Independence and its relation to democracy?

The American War of Independence was a political and military conflict between Great Britain and its 13 American colonies, which declared independence and formed the U.S.A. The causes of the war stemmed from “no taxation without representation”, British control, and desire for self-government. The key democratic ideas that were promoted are: 

• Popular Sovereignty: American revolution asserted that legitimate government desires its authority from the consent of the governed, not from divine right or hereditary rule (kings). 

• Written Constitution (1787): Established a durable framework or representative republicanism with codified separation 

How did the French Revolution and the American War of Independence contribute to the evolution of concept of democracy? 

The French Revolution introduced the democratic ideas of universal rights and equality before the law. The Declaration of the Rights of Man allowed men to be free and equal in rights, and equality before the law ended the privileges of the noble and clergy. The American Independence introduced popular sovereignty and a representative government. Power was established to come from the people and not the king; governments also were to derive their powers from the consent of the governed. The written constitution established checks and balances, and rejected monarchy in favor of elected leaders. 

What are the differences between Democracy and American Republicanism?

The constitution was drafted by 55 delegates at the Philadelphia convention - lasted May to September 1787, after 4 months of intense debate & compromise.

• Emphasis on Happiness: Declaration of Independence, “pursuit of happiness” is seen as a natural right.

• No mention of Democracy: Founders preferred the term ‘republic’ to emphasize representative institutions and checks on popular passion.

• Democracy seen as Mob Rule: influenced by classical history, many founders equated democracy with instability and mob rule - where transient majorities could undermine liberty, property, & rule of law.

• Skepticism of Popular Emotion: Hamilton & Madison feared that pure democracy allowed decision-making to swing with the passions of the crowd rather than reasoned deliberation.

• Preference for a Mixed Republic: Founders designed a constitutional system of filtered participation - Senate originally not directly elected, electoral college & lifetime judicial appointments - to temper majority impulses while preserving popular sovereignty.

What is Democracy?

Democracy is a political system in which power resides with the people, exercised through free and fair elections, rule of law, & protection of fundamental rights. 

What are the pre-requisites of Democracy? Define and discuss 2-3 aspects.

1. Free and Fair Elections: competitive, regular, & transparent voting

• An election is free and fair when it provides citizens with an opportunity to choose their representatives under conditions that are: transparent, competitive, inclusive, equal, and uncoerced.

  • When leaders are chosen in elections that are declared as ‘free and fair’, their authority is more widely accepted. The government is understood to derive its power from the will of the people. Without this legitimacy, trust erodes and the core principle of democracy is not followed. Also, free and fair elections ensure minority voices, opposition parties, and all groups have access to the political process.

• If elections are not free and fair, there becomes reduced legitimacy which increases instability. Minorities or opposition become marginalized.

2. Rule of Law: everyone is equal under the law

• The rule of law states that no one is above the law. It is clear, publicly known, and enforced; applied equally to all people, including government officials.

  • Democracy depends on civil liberties: freedom of speech, press, religion, assembly - the rule of law ensures their rights are protected in practice not just theory. Without legal protection, majorities or governments could silence opposition or minorities. The rule of law also ensures elections are legitimate (free and fair) which is essential to democracy.

• If the rule of law did not exist, laws can be abused or selectively enforced. Citizens may lose trust in the government and justice also.

3. Pluralism

• Multiple parties and ideas can compete

4. Active Citizenship

• Informed, engaged, public participation

Explain the British Parliamentary or Westminster Democracy

• The Norman Conquest: a majority military and political event in English history, when William, Duke of Normandy, invaded England and defeated King Harold II at the Battle of Hastings. Resulting in William becoming the King of England.

  • Origins of centralized rule: beginning of centralized state in what became known as England.

  • William I created it with royal writs & administrative control.

  • Established both the power of the monarch & the need for consultation and consent, planting the seed of negotiation between the Crown & Noble.

  • Noble refers to the land of Aristocracy and Priests, not just ordinary people.

• Magna Carta (1215): and the Beginnings of Constitutionalism

  • Limited royal power and introduced principles of king not above law and no taxation without consent. 

  • Barons forced King John to agree that his powers were not unlimited, stressing the need for the principle of rule of law over arbitrary royal authority. Later generations saw this as a powerful way to limit arbitrary power over the king.

• The issue of taxation was a real concern. 

  • They wanted the King to notify them if he wanted to raise taxes. They wanted the King to notify them when he wanted to take initiative or reform that would’ve impacted their property. King John agreed to this. This agreement is what British Constitutionalism developed from. 

  • Initially, it was about elite interests such as taxation and feudal rights, but later generations saw it as a powerful constraint on executive & arbitrary power. 

• British Constitutionalism: happened very slowly and gradually; this is the key to success of the British system. In comparison with other countries that have gone through the democratization process, democracy is not like importing or exporting in Britain. It takes a long process because the longer, the more deeper the roots of constitutionalism and democracy become. 

Britain is a constitutional monarchy

• The Crown passes by hereditary succession, but the government or state officials exercise nearly all powers of the Crown.

• Parliamentary sovereignty, parliamentary democracy, and cabinet government form the core of the British or Westminster model of government.

Discuss the Rise of Parliament in the 13-14th centuries

• Under Henry II and Edward I, Parliament began to take shape as a body representing the Commons and Lords, with authority to consent taxes. 

  • Parliament became indispensable as kings fiscal needs grew, making bargaining, & compromise inevitable. 

  • *Bargaining and Compromise - if you are unwilling to give and your rival is unwilling to give and/or take, then you do not have any kind of democratic or representative government. 

    • In England, the case was not that they were powerful lords or clergy, but that those two classes continuously challenged the authority of the King. 

Explain the United Kingdom Development 

1536: England and Wales united 

1707: Scotland joined

1801: Ireland joined

The term “UK” dates from 1801. After Irish independence in 1922, it became the UK of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.

• No dynasty over the past 500 years seized power by violent overthrow of the reigning royal house.

  • British try to resolve conflict through peaceful means; change in dynasty has been quite peaceful.

What is the role of religion/rise of Puritans in England? How does this relate to British supremacy? 

The Puritans:

• Emerged around 1560s-1580s as a reformist movement within the church of England, seeking to purify it of remaining Roman catholic practices they viewed as unbiblical, in response to what they saw as the incomplete Protestant Reformation under Elizabeth I. 

• Puritans in Parliament pushed for further reform and resisted perceived Catholic sympathies of monarchs (Charles I and later James II). 

Religion & Politics; 

• Religion became a proxy for constitutional conflict; royal claims to divine right and toleration of Catholicism alienated a Parliament dominated by Protestant elites. 

  • Civil War (1642-1651): Conflict erupted between Charles I and Parliament (puritan) over sovereignty, taxation, and church control; ending with Charles I execution & a short-lived republic.

  • Restoration and Tensions (1660-1688): the monarchy was restored under Charles II, but fears of his catholic leaning policies and his brother James II open Catholicism reignited conflict.

  • Glorious Revolution (1688-1689): Parliament invited the Protestant William of Orange to dispose James II - restoration of British Monarchy. 

    • Monarch could not suspend laws, levy taxes, or maintain a standing army without Parliament. 

    • Parliament became supreme sovereign

What is the Cromwell & Republic Experiment (1649-1660)?

A brief period in English history when England had no king and was governed as a republic - a radical break from centuries of monarchy. This period began with the execution of King Charles I and ended with the restoration of the monarchy in 1660. 

Discuss Democratization and Reform in Britain

Beginning with the Reform Act of 1832, Britain incrementally (slowly) expanded the franchise, reformed parliamentary representation, and laid the foundation for liberal democracy, culminating in the growth of mass politics by the late 19th century.

• Some of these changes were the result of societal changes, such as the rise of working class/bourgeoise. 

*Respect for tradition: Gradual change 

When things get old, they don’t throw them out, the people in England come to respect them. Old traditions are important. They love gradual change! 

Explain what a ‘Shadow Government’ is and does

A shadow government is a group of senior members from the official opposition party who are assigned to “shadow” specific ministers in the actual government. If the ruling party loses a vote of no confidence, resigns, or loses an election, the shadow cabinet steps in to form a new government.

• Any government in a good position, and has gained a good number of seats in the House of Representatives can at any time, should the current ruling government collapse, take over the government.

Explain ‘Confidence Vote’ 

A confidence vote is a parliamentary procedure used to determine whether the government still has the majority of the legislature. In other words, a formal vote in parliament to determine whether the sitting government still has the support/confidence of the majority of elected representatives.

• If the government loses a vote of no confidence:

  • It has 14 days to regain confidence (forming a new coalition or passing a new vote)

  • If not, a general election is called. 

• If confidence is lost, the government resigns and new elections are held.

Explain UK Voting Rights and the importance behind this

• Before 1832, only ~3 (land, property-owning) men could vote; no secret ballot.

• 1832 Reform Act: Extended vote to middle-class men meeting property thresholds (~8%)

• 1867 & 1884 Reform Acts: Expanded vote to most urban & rural working class men (~60%)

• 1918 Representation of People Act: Universal male suffrage 21+, and women over 30 with property.

• 1928 Equal Franchise Act: Full suffrage for women on same terms as men (21+). 

• 1969: Representation of People Act: Voting age lowered to 18 for all 

• Present: All UK citizens and qualifying commonwealth/Irish residents age 18+ vote. 

  • Shows how slowly voting extend and expanded in Britain

How are UK Elections conducted? How much do they cost?

• Candidates fund their own campaign within strict spending limits, since there is no state funding for party campaigns. Parties are main contributors. Campaigns can be posters, billboards, media appearances, regulated broadcasts, etc. Rules on spending limits and how election materials must be authorized. 

• The cost of UK elections involves running polling stations, staffing, printing ballots, counting votes, logistics, etc. As of 2024, the total campaign spending was 94.5 mil for parties, candidates, and non-party campaigners combined.

  • The party spending limit is around 34 mil.

• In general, UK elections are inexpensive and short. Campaign last 4-6 weeks.

What is First-Past-the-Post? Winner takes all? 

Each constituency elects a single MP (member of parliament) and the candidate with the most votes wins outright, even without majority.

• “Winner takes all”- system favors larger parties, safe seats, produce government whose seat share doesn’t reflect their share of national vote. 

What is a false majority?"

Occurs when a political party or candidate wins majority of seats or power despite receiving less than a majority of the votes. 

Example: Imagine a parliament with 100 seats. A party wins 51 seats by narrowly winning each district, while losing badly in others. Nationally, they only get 40% of the total votes, but they control a majority of the seats — that's a false majority.