Unit 10: The Crisis of Modernity 1850-1914

Realism

A 19th century artistic movement (1850-1900ish) in which writers and painters sought to show life as it is rather than life as it should be

- emphasis on truth and honest depiction

- rejection of Romantic nostalgia and emotion

- drew attention to social problems of the day (effects of industrialization, etc)

- Famous artist: Jean-Francois Millet- Famous writers: Charles Dickens, Fyodor Dostoevsky, Leo Tolstoy

Karl Marx

a socio-economic and political theory developed by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, which argues that all historical developments are driven by class struggle, criticizing capitalism and advocating for a classless society achieved through a revolution where the working class (proletariat) would overthrow the capitalist class (bourgeoisie) and take control of the means of production

Paris Commune

A brief Parisian movement created after the fall of Napoleon III

- created from socialist and anarchist workers

- fought for reforms in education, welfare, and women's rights

- defeated after bloody fights with police

Mrs. Beeton's Book of Household Management

Book that served as a guide to successful housewifery. Condemned the Victorians for pursuing debauched lives marked by sexual excesses and drug addiction, despite being so sure about what was right and wrong, moral and immoral, proper and improper.

Victorian England

the period of British history that spanned the reign of Queen Victoria, from 1837 until her death in 1901, characterized by significant industrial, social, and cultural changes during a time when Britain was a dominant global power and experienced rapid urbanization and economic growth; essentially, it encompasses the era of Britain under Queen Victoria's rule

Charles Dickens

prominent English novelist and social critic from the Victorian era, famous for his vivid portrayals of the struggles faced by the working class and poor during the Industrial Revolution, often highlighting social injustices through his intricate plots and well-developed characters in works like "Oliver Twist" and "A Tale of Two Cities.".

Gustave Flaubert

a prominent figure in the literary movement of "Realism," known for his detailed, often unflinching depictions of everyday life, complex characters, and critical social commentary, most notably seen in his novel "Madame Bovary.".

Fyodor Dostoyevsky

a prominent 19th-century Russian novelist known for his deeply psychological works that explored complex themes like morality, existentialism, and the human condition within the turbulent social and political climate of Tsarist Russia, with famous titles including "Crime and Punishment," "The Idiot," and "The Brothers Karamazov.".

Charles Darwin

(1809-1882)

English naturalist who traveled the world studying fossils and plant specimens and developed the theory of evolution

- published his book On the Origin of Species (1859)

Natural selection

Darwin's theory that as populations compete for finite resources, the unfit populations will be weeded out

- stronger individuals with certain traits tend to survive and reproduce at higher rates and pass down their strong traits, whereas unfit individuals do not reproduce as frequently and the traits are not passed

Das Kapital

a foundational text in Marxist theory, written by Karl Marx, which critically analyzes capitalism by examining the nature of capital, its role in production, and the exploitation of labor, arguing that capitalism inherently leads to class struggles and economic inequalities

Dialectical Materialism (Marx)

political and historical events result from the conflict of social forces and are interpretable as a series of contradictions and their solutions. The conflict is believed to be caused by material needs.

- all history is an unending story of class struggle between the "haves" and the "have nots"

- different types of societies throughout history have developed different types of government

- technology shaped economics, which eventually shaped politics and culture

Marx's view of his era

Alarmed by the way capitalism caused workers to live in poverty and the middle class to live wealthily

- predicted a class struggle between the proletariat and the bourgeoisie in which the proletariat would overthrow the bourgeoisie

- a "dictatorship of the proletariat" would be a transitional phase into a classless society in which all property is owned collectively

Futurists

an early 20th century Italian artistic and social movement that celebrated modernity, speed, technology, and the dynamic energy of urban life, often depicting movement and dynamism in their art by rejecting traditional realism and embracing abstraction, while sometimes glorifying war as a means to achieve societal progress; the movement was led by Filippo Tommaso Marinetti and is considered a key expression of the modern era in art.

Impressionism

Art style that gained popularity in the late 19th and early 20th centuries

- rejected Realism

- depicted visual impression of a moment- sought to capture a momentary feel, moment, or impression

- often very colorful

- Famous artists: Claude Monet & Edgar Degas

Edouard Manet

a prominent French painter considered a crucial bridge between Realism and Impressionism, renowned for his controversial works like "Olympia" that challenged traditional art conventions by depicting modern Parisian life with a flat, sharp style, paving the way for modern art movements

Claude Monet

prominent French painter and a leading figure in the Impressionist art movement, famous for his innovative technique of capturing the changing qualities of natural light and atmosphere through loose brushstrokes, often painting outdoors to capture the fleeting effects of light on landscapes, particularly seen in works like his "Haystacks" series

Friedrich Nietzsche

German irrational philosopher (1844-1900)

- claimed "God is dead" and that developments in science and reasoning and an increasingly secular world had killed him

- proponent of nihilism (life lacks purpose and nothing matters)

Georges Sorel

a French political theorist most recognized for his concept of "revolutionary myth" and advocating for the use of violence as a necessary tool to achieve social change, particularly through the idea of a general strike

Mass culture/politics

Emergence of mass political parties and expansion of political democracy in Western Europe

- increase in voting rights

- coincided with industrialization and the creation of new social classes, who wanted to be able to influence the government in some way

Home Rule (Ireland)

the political movement advocating for Ireland to have its own parliament and self-governance while remaining part of the United Kingdom, essentially seeking a degree of autonomy within the British Empire, rather than complete independence; this was a major point of contention in Irish politics leading up to World War I.

Extension of suffrage in Britain

the gradual process of expanding voting rights in Britain throughout the 19th century, where the right to vote was progressively extended to more men beyond just property owners, eventually culminating in women gaining the right to vote as well

Labour Party (Kier Hardie)

a major political party primarily representing the interests of the working class, advocating for social justice, workers' rights, and often pushing for increased government intervention in the economy to provide social welfare programs

Fabians

members of the Fabian Society, a British socialist organization that advocated for gradual, democratic reforms to achieve socialism, rather than through revolutionary means; named after the Roman general Fabius Maximus, known for his strategy of slow, methodical warfare

David Lloyd George

a prominent British statesman who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom during World War I, known for his leadership during the war, significant social reforms, and a key role in negotiating the post-war Treaty of Versailles at the Paris Peace Conference; he is considered one of the "Big Three" Allied leaders alongside Woodrow Wilson and Georges Clemenceau

National Insurance Act (1911)

a law passed by the United Kingdom Parliament that established a national insurance system. It was a key component of the modern welfare state and was a significant social reform.

Parliament Bill (1911)

a British law that significantly reduced the power of the House of Lords by removing its ability to veto most legislation, instead allowing them only to delay bills for a limited period, effectively giving more power to the elected House of Commons; it also reduced the maximum duration of a Parliament from seven years to five years.

Trade Unions Act (1913)

a British law that allowed trade unions to legally establish a separate political fund, meaning they could collect money specifically for political activities, while also allowing individual members to opt-out of contributing to this fund if they wished; essentially giving unions more freedom to engage in political actions while respecting individual member choice

Kulturampf

"Cultural Struggle"

- policy pursued by Bismarck to diminish the power of Catholicism by passing laws to expel Jesuits, end Catholic education, introduce civil marriage, and break relations with Vatican

- policies were halted because they were unsuccessful and because the threat of socialism seemed more concerning to Bismarck

Kaiser Wilhelm II

the last German Emperor and King of Prussia, who reigned from 1888 until his abdication in 1918; he is often remembered for his aggressive foreign policy and militaristic approach, which significantly contributed to the tensions leading up to World War I.

Socialist revisionism

a political ideology where individuals, often within a socialist movement, modify or "revise" core Marxist ideas, typically advocating for a more gradual and reformist approach to achieving socialism through democratic means rather than a violent revolution, as originally envisioned by Marx

Eduard Bernstein

prominent German socialist theorist considered a "revisionist" who challenged key aspects of Karl Marx's communist theory, advocating for gradual social reform through democratic means rather than violent revolution, essentially arguing that socialism could be achieved through evolution within existing capitalist systems, not necessarily through a revolutionary overthrow; his major work is called "Evolutionary Socialism.".

Anti-Socialist Laws

a series of legislative acts implemented in Germany by Chancellor Otto von Bismarck between 1878 and 1890, aimed at suppressing the growing influence of the socialist movement and political organizations, particularly the Social Democratic Party, by restricting their activities and freedom of assembly; these laws were enacted in response to fears of radical socialist actions, including assassination attempts against the Kaiser.

Dreyfus Affair

The 1894 accusation and trial of Captain Alfred Dreyfus, a Jewish-French military officer accused of passing military secrets to Germany

- Dreyfus was convicted with little to no evidence

- example of increasing antisemitism against Jews (seen as a convenient scapegoat)

Boulanger Affair

a late 19th century political crisis in France where General Georges Boulanger, a popular military figure, gained significant public support and threatened to overthrow the Third Republic through a coup d'état, ultimately failing and fleeing the country, highlighting the instability of French politics at the time; this event is often studied as an example of rising nationalism and potential threats to established political systems.

Emile Zola

a prominent French novelist from the late 19th century, considered a leading figure in the literary movement of Naturalism, who wrote detailed, often gritty novels depicting the harsh realities of working-class life and social issues during the Industrial Revolution, frequently focusing on themes like poverty, labor strife, and societal injustices

Antisemitism

Hostility to or prejudice against Jews

- byproduct of militant, authoritarian, racist nationalism

- increasing pogroms against Jews

- takes on new racial tone instead of simply religious prejudice as Social Darwinism rises

Suffrage movement (Pankhursts)

Emmeline and her daughters led the Women's Social and Political Union to protest women's suffrage in 1903

- organized huge rallies

- protestors were physically assaulted by police and frequently arrested

- increased awareness of women's suffrage issues and led to women getting the right to vote in 1928

Women's Social and Political Union

(WSPU) refers to a British organization founded by Emmeline Pankhurst, known for its militant tactics and aggressive campaigning to achieve women's suffrage through protests, hunger strikes, and civil disobedience, playing a significant role in the early 20th century women's rights movement

"Cat and Mouse Act" (1913)

officially known as the Prisoners (Temporary Discharge for Ill Health) Act of 1913, was a law enacted in the United Kingdom to address the hunger strikes of women suffragists who were imprisoned for their activism. This act allowed authorities to release suffragists on temporary medical grounds when they became too ill from fasting, only to rearrest them once they had recovered, creating a cycle of imprisonment and release akin to a game of cat and mouse

Zionism

A movement founded in the 1890s to promote the establishment of a Jewish homeland in Palestine

- hundreds of years of pogroms and persecution caused people to suggest an independent nation for Jewish people to escape violence

- Theodore Herzl was an early founder

Theodor Herzl

(1860-1904) German-Jewish journalist and founder of the Zionist movement urging the creation of a Jewish national homeland in Palestine.

- Antisemitism from Dreyfus Affair was integral in inspiring Zionism

- wanted Jews to have a place to safely practice their religion and form their own government

Pogroms

organized violence towards a particular ethnic group

- most commonly references violence towards and massacres of Jews in Russia or eastern Europe in the late 19th and early 20th centuries

anarcho-syndicalism

A radical ideology that proposed the revolutionary reorganization of society into an egalitarian community ruled by labor unions.

Anarchism

A political theory that opposes any type of government in any form

- believed that governments do nothing but exploit people and that society would function better without them

- believed that capitalism should be overthrown by force

- prominent in violent underground movements

Mikhail Bakunin

a prominent figure in the anarchist movement, known for his radical beliefs advocating the complete abolition of the state and hierarchical power structures, believing that true freedom could only be achieved through self-governing communities and a society without any centralized authority; he was a major critic of Marxist ideas, particularly the concept of a "dictatorship of the proletariat."

X-rays

a form of high-energy electromagnetic radiation discovered by Wilhelm Röntgen in 1895, which can penetrate solid materials like living tissue, allowing for medical imaging applications like radiography, and are significant because their discovery marked a major advancement in medical technology during the late 19th century; however, due to their ionizing nature, exposure to X-rays can be hazardous to health

Marie Curie

a pioneering scientist who made groundbreaking discoveries in the field of radioactivity, most notably discovering the elements radium and polonium, which significantly advanced the field of medicine, particularly in cancer treatment; her work is considered a pivotal moment in late 19th and early 20th century scientific advancements.

Albert Einstein

German physicist (1879-1945)

- redefined how people thought about space, time, gravity, energy, and matter

- developed theory of relativity, which states that time, space, and mass are relative to each other and not fixed

Max Planck

a German physicist who is most recognized for developing the concept of "quantum theory," which revolutionized our understanding of energy by proposing that it exists in discrete packets called "quanta," rather than as a continuous flow; this groundbreaking idea laid the foundation for modern quantum mechanics

Ivan Pavlov

a German physicist who is most recognized for developing the concept of "quantum theory," which revolutionized our understanding of energy by proposing that it exists in discrete packets called "quanta," rather than as a continuous flow; this groundbreaking idea laid the foundation for modern quantum mechanics

Social sciences

the study of the social structures, relationships, and dynamics within European societies throughout history, encompassing aspects like class structures, social hierarchies, family dynamics, gender roles, social movements, and the impact of economic and political changes on people's lives within a society; essentially, analyzing the "social" aspects of European history as opposed to purely political or economic factors.

Criminology

the study of crime and criminal behavior within the historical period covered by the course, primarily focusing on the social, political, and economic factors that contributed to crime rates and criminal justice systems in Europe throughout different eras, like the impact of social unrest, political repression, or economic inequality on crime patterns.

Sigmund Freud

Austrian neurologist (1856-1939) who created psychoanalysis (study of unconscious mind) and distinguished psychology as a separate discipline

- believed human behavior is motivated by unconscious urges

- suppressed sexual urges from childhood may play a role in behavior

Contraception

the deliberate use of methods or devices to prevent pregnancy, essentially meaning "birth control" - a concept that gained significant attention and social debate throughout European history, particularly regarding changing attitudes towards family planning and women's reproductive rights.

Consumption/advertising

the widespread use of marketing strategies to promote the purchase of consumer goods, essentially encouraging people to buy more products and services, often through techniques that create a desire for items beyond basic needs, contributing significantly to the rise of "consumerism" during the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

Eugenics

Eugenics is a set of beliefs and practices aimed at improving the genetic quality of a population, often through selective breeding and sterilization. This controversial movement gained popularity in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, using ideas from Darwinism and Social Darwinism to justify efforts to control human reproduction. Eugenics became notably associated with state policies that aimed to eliminate perceived 'undesirable' traits, which tragically culminated in the horrors of the Holocaust.

"New woman"

women who challenged traditional gender roles by pursuing education, employment outside the home, political activism, and greater personal autonomy, often advocating for women's suffrage and broader social reforms; essentially, a woman who embraced a more independent and public life compared to the expectations of her time.

Paul Cezanne

French Post-Impressionist painter whose work helped transition European art from Impressionism to Cubism and other 20th-century movements.

Social Darwinism

Belief that Darwin's theory of "survival of the fittest" was also true when it came to human races and classes

- upper classes were inherently superior to lower classes

- white Europeans were biologically and culturally superior to people of Africa and Asia, whom they had a "duty" to conquer and "civilize"

Paul Gauguin

French Post-Impressionist painter who rejected European urban values and sought to express his emotional response to subjects. His work was a significant departure from Impressionism and had a major impact on modern art.

Compulsory education & education reform

Swiss reformers believed that poor children should be educated and that learning should involve hands-on activities and field trips

- In Germany, kindergarten (garden of children) was developed

- In France, nonreligious public education became available at no cost, leading literacy rates to rise

First International (1864)

First International" refers to the First International Workers' Association (IWA), a labor organization founded in 1864 that aimed to unite various European worker movements and advocate for their rights, with Karl Marx playing a significant role in its development and ideology; it is considered a key moment in the history of international labor movements and socialist thought.

Second International (1889)

also called the Socialist International, was a political international of socialist and labour parties and trade unions which existed from 1889 to 1916

Louis Pasteur

French chemist (1822-1895) who developed the germ theory of disease and helped control the spread of disease

- fermentation and disease were caused by microorganisms like bacteria and viruses

- found that the growth of bacteria could be suppressed by heat (called pasteurization)

Ringstrasse

a circular road in Vienna, Austria, which was built during the late 19th century and is lined with grand buildings, monuments, and parks, essentially representing a symbol of the city's imperial grandeur and architectural achievements during the Habsburg reign; it is often associated with the modernization and beautification efforts of the Austrian Empire.

Nicolas II of Russia

the last Emperor of Russia, who ruled from 1894 until his abdication in 1917 during the Russian Revolution; his reign was marked by significant social unrest and political upheaval, ultimately leading to the downfall of the Romanov dynasty and the end of Tsarist rule in Russia.

Revolution of 1905

a period of widespread social and political unrest in Russia, marked by strikes, protests, and uprisings against the autocratic rule of Tsar Nicholas II, which ultimately forced him to implement limited reforms, including the establishment of a legislative body called the Duma, through the "October Manifesto"; this event is considered a pivotal moment in Russian history, laying the groundwork for future revolutionary movements.

Pope Pius IX

a significant figure, particularly known for his staunch conservative stance during the mid-19th century, who strongly opposed liberal movements and solidified the power of the Papacy by defining the dogma of papal infallibility in 1870, a key event in the history of the Catholic Church; his reign spanned from 1846 to 1878, a period marked by major political upheaval in Italy and Europe.

Pope Leo XIII

a significant late 19th century Pope of the Catholic Church, most notably known for his encyclical "Rerum Novarum," which addressed the social issues arising from the Industrial Revolution by advocating for worker rights while condemning extreme socialist ideologies; essentially attempting to reconcile the Church with the changing social landscape of the time.

Symbolist poetry

a late 19th-century literary movement where poets used symbols and imagery to express abstract ideas, emotions, and spiritual concepts rather than directly depicting reality, often reacting against the prevailing naturalism and realism of the time;

Expressionism

an early 20th century art movement where artists prioritized conveying their subjective emotional experiences through distorted forms and vivid colors, often depicting the world not as it is seen objectively, but rather how it feels to the artist, with a focus on expressing intense emotions rather than realistic representation

Cubism

Artistic style of the early 20th century

- subject matter is portrayed by geometric forms, especially cubes

- influence of technology and fast-moving industry

- Famous artist: Pablo Picasso

Positivism (Auguste Comte)

the application of the scientific approach to the social world

- theory that claimed a careful study of facts would generate accurate, useful, or "positive" laws of society

- inspired people to believe they could solve problems resulting from economic/social changes

- led to scientifically oriented societies that sought statistics on social issues like poverty and working class life

Post-Impressionism

Artistic style in the late 19th century

- incorporated Impressionist use of color and brushstrokes but used these to express certain emotions

- rejected Realism

- more focused on line and structure

- Famous artists: Vincent van Gogh and Paul Cezanne