AP Psych Unit 4: Social and Personality

Displacement

Redirect impulse to something less bad

Reaction Formation

Acting opposite

Rationalization

Justification of our behaviors or attitude/feelings

Sublimation

Redirect to positive

Repression

No conscious awareness

Regression

Revert to child-like behavior

Projection

Accuse someone else of your feelings/ behavior

Ego

Conscious mind- has to satisfy ID and superego

ID

Primitive part of mind that seeks pleasure/ impulsive

Superego

Part of mind that is always seeking perfection/ following rules

Reciprocal Determinism

Self Actualizing Tendency

Everyone is innately motivated to become their best self

Unconditional positive regard

Showing complete support and acceptance of someone no matter what they say or do

Humanistic Theory

Free will, self actualizing theory, unconditional positive regard

Projective tests

present ambiguous stimuli (ink blots, pictures) hoping that people would project their own unconscious conflicts, aspects of their personality into their interpretations

self concept

description and evaluation of oneself

self-efficiency

perception of capabilities

self esteem

degree to which self concept is perceived to be positive

openness to experience

high:open low:close minded

conscientiousness

high:organized, schedule low:procrastinating, messy

extraversion

high:likes people, likes attention, extrovert low:prefers solitude, dislike small talk, introvert

agreeableness

high:interest in other people, empathy, helpful low:little interest in others, manipulative, belittle and insult people

emotional stability

high: stressed, mood shifts, anxious, upset easily low:low stress relaxed, rarely sad, emotionally stable

objective tests

personality tests with no interpretations, standardized

personality inventories

objective personality test used to measure an individuals traits, feelings, etc

factor analysis

a statistical data reduction method used to identify underlying. unobserved factors that explain the correlations among a large set of observed variables

drive-reduction theory

need —> drive —→ behavior

homeostasis

the body’s tendency to maintain a steady, balanced internal state

arousal theory

human beings will do whatever it takes to achieve their optimum level of arousal

Yerkes-dodson law

Lewin’s motivational conflicts

people navigate decision making when facing competing psychological forces, creating tension that drives behavior

avoidance-avoidance

two undesirable options

approach-approach

two desirable options

approach-avoidance

option with good and bad to it

instinct

automatic behaviors performed in response to specific stimuli

incentive theory

behavior is motivated by the desire to attain rewards and avoid punishments

self-determination theory

people can become self-determined when their needs for competence, relatedness, and autonomy are fulfilled

intrinsic motivation

drive to engage in something for internal satisfaction

extrinsic motivation

drive to engage in something for external rewards or to avoid punishment

psychodynamic

Originating from Freud, this view highlights the role of the unconscious mind, early childhood experiences, and interpersonal relationships in shaping behavior

Humanistic

Emphasizes personal growth, self-actualization, free will, and the innate drive to reach one's full potential.

Social Cognitive

Concentrates on how people mentally process information, including thinking, memory, problem-solving, and language.

Trait

ocuses on identifying, measuring, and describing stable, enduring personality characteristics—such as extroversion or conscientiousness—that drive behavior

social cognitive theory

there is no inherent personality and our behaviors largely rest on our environment and what we learn through observing others

personality inventories

intended to evaluate different personality traits by asking specific questions that assess different behaviors or characteristics, standardized test offer limited choices and are objective

TAT

projective test of looking at pictures

Attribution theory

the explanations individuals create for the causes of behaviors. They help people understand and predict others and your own action

Dispositional Attribution

assign the cause of behavior to inherent qualities, traits, or characteristics of the individual. -If a colleague consistently meets deadlines, we might attribute the behavior to strong work ethics

Situational attribution

external, assign the cause of behavior to external factors or circumstances beyond the individuals control -someone is late bc of traffic

fundamental attribution error

underestimate situation, overestimate character

actor-observer bias

we overestimate/include our situation, not others

self-serving bias

we own our successful behaviors, blame situation on bad things

locus of control

how much control we think we have over life events/outcomes

internal locus of control

outcomes within your control determined by your hard work or decisions

external locus of control

outcomes outside your control- determined by “fate” and not of your hard work/decisions

mere exposure effect

individuals tend to develop a preference for things because they are familiar with them. repeated exposure to a stimulus increases likelihood of a particular evaluation of a stimulus

self fulfilling prophecy

an individuals expectations about another person or situation influence their behavior toward that situation or person

-expectation leads to fulfillment

social comparison

people determine their own social and personal worth based on how they stack up against others

relative deprivation

subjective feeling of discontent and resentment arising from the belief that one lacks resources or opportunities compared to other in a similar situation

stereotype

 is a generalized belief about a particular group of people. These beliefs can be positive or negative and often arise from overgeneralizing traits or behaviors observed in a few individuals within a group. Assuming all teenagers are rebellious can lead to unfair treatment of individual teens who do not fit this stereotype, affecting their self-esteem and social interactions.

FALSE ASSUMPTIONS

prejudice

ATTITUDE

 is a preconceived opinion or attitude about an individual or group, typically based on stereotypes and often without a factual basis. It is usually negative and involves an emotional response. Racial prejudice can result in social exclusion and unequal opportunities for people of certain ethnic backgrounds, impacting their educational and employment prospects.

discrimination

BEHAVIOR

 the behavior or actions, often negative, directed towards an individual or group based on prejudice. It involves treating people unfairly because of their membership in a particular group. Gender discrimination in the workplace can result in unequal pay and limited career advancement opportunities for women, affecting their economic status and job satisfaction.

just-world phenomenon

the cognitive bias that leads individuals to believe that the world is fair and that people get what they deserve. This belief can justify existing social inequalities. Believing that homeless individuals are solely responsible for their situation can reduce societal support for policies aimed at addressing homelessness.

out-group homogeneity bias

 the tendency to view members of an out-group as more similar to each other than members of one's in-group. This bias can contribute to stereotyping. A person might perceive all members of a rival sports team as aggressive, despite variations in individual behavior and personality within the team.

in group bias

 the preference for and favoritism towards one's own group over out-groups. This bias can enhance group cohesion but also foster prejudice and discrimination against out-groups. Employees may favor colleagues from their own department when collaborating on projects, leading to exclusion or undervaluation of input from other departments.

Ethnocentrism

 the belief in the inherent superiority of one's own ethnic group or culture. It involves judging other cultures by the standards of one's own. Ethnocentrism can manifest in international business, where managers impose their own cultural norms on foreign employees, leading to workplace tension and reduced productivity.

Belief perserverance

the tendency to maintain a belief even after the evidence supporting it has been discredited. It highlights the difficulty individuals face in changing their beliefs, even when confronted with contradictory information.

cognitive dissonance

 the tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information that confirms one's preexisting beliefs while ignoring or dismissing contradictory evidence. During an election, a voter might only read news sources that support their favored candidate and dismiss articles from opposing viewpoints, reinforcing their political beliefs and reducing exposure to diverse information.

when our thoughts and actions conflict, or when. wehave two opposing thought processes. this state is uncomfortable, so we seek to end it by changing our thoughts or behaviors to be better aligned

central route to persausion

 Involves careful and thoughtful consideration of the true merits of the information presented.

peripheral route to persuasion

Involves less cognitive effort and is influenced by superficial cues, such as the attractiveness or credibility of the source. This route is used when the audience is either unmotivated or unable to process the message deeply, leading to temporary attitude changes. A consumer being swayed to buy a product because a celebrity endorses it, regardless of the product’s merits.

Halo effect

s a cognitive bias where the perception of one positive trait (e.g., attractiveness) influences the perception of other unrelated traits (e.g., intelligence or kindness). An attractive person may be perceived as more intelligent or competent by their peers or employer

foot in the door technique

 is a persuasion strategy that involves getting a person to agree to a small initial request, followed by a larger request.

door in the face technique

 - is a persuasion strategy that involves making a large, unreasonable request that is likely to be refused, followed by a smaller, more reasonable request. This technique leverages the principle of reciprocity

conformity

the tendency of individuals to adjust their behavior, attitudes, or beliefs to align with those of a group or social norms

persuasion

- involves changing someone’s attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors through argument, reasoning, or appeal

obedience

involves following orders or directives from an authority figure. influenced by social structures

social influence theory

 examines how individuals' thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are shaped by the presence, opinions, and actions of others. This theory encompasses various forms of social influence, including conformity, compliance, and obedience. In a workplace, an employee might change their work habits to match those of their colleagues, believing that this will lead to better acceptance and integration within the team.

social norms

the implicit or explicit rules that govern the behavior of individuals within a group or society.

normative social influence

 occurs when individuals conform to a group’s expectations to gain social approval or avoid social disapproval.

informational social influence

occurs when individuals conform to the behavior of others because they believe those others have accurate knowledge and that conforming will help them make correct decisions. This type of influence is based on the desire to be right. During an emergency, people might look to others' reactions to determine the appropriate course of action. If everyone starts evacuating a building, an individual is likely to follow, assuming that the group’s behavior is based on accurate information about a potential danger.

individualism

 is a cultural orientation that emphasizes personal goals, autonomy, and individual rights

collectivism

- is a cultural orientation that emphasizes group goals, interdependence, and the importance of social harmony

multiculturalism

 is a societal approach that values and promotes the coexistence of diverse cultural groups

group polarization

 refers to the tendency for group discussions to amplify the initial leanings of group members, leading to more extreme positions

groupthink

When the desire for group harmony overrides common sense/dissenting opinions.

diffusion of responsibility

occurs when individuals in a group feel less personally accountable for their actions because responsibility is shared among all members.

social loafing

- is the tendency for individuals to exert less effort when working in a group compared to when working alone.

deindividuation

 is a psychological state where individuals lose self-awareness and personal accountability in groups, leading to behavior that is uncharacteristic and often uninhibited.

social facilitation

 refers to the tendency for people to perform tasks better when they are in the presence of others

false consensus effect

s a cognitive bias where individuals overestimate the extent to which their beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors are shared by others

superordinate goals

are objectives that require cooperation between groups or individuals, transcending individual differences and promoting unity.

social trap

 occur when individuals or groups pursue short-term gains that ultimately lead to negative long-term consequences for the group as a whole

industrial organizational psychology

 apply psychological principles and research methods to the workplace to improve productivity, work quality, and the well-being of employees

altruism

 a form of prosocial behavior where an individual acts to benefit others without expecting any personal gain or reward

social reciprocity norm

 a social rule that encourages individuals to repay, in kind, what another person has provided

social responsibility norm

a societal expectation that individuals and organizations should help those in need and contribute to the collective welfare without expecting personal gain.

bystander effect

 a social phenomenon where individuals are less likely to offer help in an emergency situation when other people are present