Philosophy and Ethics: Arguments, Virtue, and Moral Theories

What is a valid argument?

An argument where if the premises are true, the conclusion must also be true.

What is a sound argument?

A valid argument whose premises are in fact true.

How do you determine if an argument is valid?

By asking whether it is possible for all the premises to be true and the conclusion false.

What are the six psychological limitations that affect assessments of information?

Skepticism toward challenging evidence, confirmation bias, disconfirmation bias, motivated reasoning, availability error, and overconfidence.

What is required for moral excellence according to Aristotle?

Doing the right thing, for the right reason, and with the right emotion or desire.

What is Aristotle's doctrine of the mean?

Virtue is the balance between two extremes of excess and deficiency, relative to the individual.

What are the central claims of virtue ethics?

Virtue ethics focuses on moral character rather than rules or consequences, emphasizing actions that express or develop virtue.

What criticism is raised about imitating virtuous people?

It is unclear whether we should imitate their actions or understand the reasons behind them for moral understanding.

What is the situationism criticism of virtue ethics?

It argues that behavior often depends more on circumstances than on stable character traits.

What is required for an action to have moral worth according to Kant?

An action must be done from a sense of duty, not from desire or self-interest.

What is the categorical imperative?

It states to act only according to that maxim which you can will to be a universal law.

What is the formula of humanity?

We must treat every human being as an end in themselves and never merely as a means to an end.

What criticism do virtue ethicists raise against Kant's theory?

They argue that it wrongly excludes moral worth from actions motivated by good emotions like love or compassion.

What implication does Kant's view have for non-rational beings?

It implies that non-rational beings lack direct moral status, which is problematic for moral concern.

What is consequentialism?

The morality of an action depends only on its results.

What is utilitarianism?

The right action is the one that produces the greatest overall good for everyone.

What is the principle of utility?

We should act to create the greatest amount of pleasure and the least amount of pain for the greatest number.

What is the swine morality objection?

It criticizes utilitarianism for reducing humans to animals by valuing only pleasure.

How does Mill respond to the swine morality objection?

He argues that pleasures differ in quality as well as quantity, with intellectual pleasures being of higher value.

What is paternalism in medical ethics?

Overriding another person's decision for their own good, which conflicts with respect for patient autonomy.

What is privacy and why is it important?

The ability to control access to personal information, important for maintaining relationships and autonomy.

What is informed consent?

A patient voluntarily agrees to treatment with adequate understanding of its risks and benefits.

What are the three legal interpretations of being informed in informed consent?

What the medical profession considers sufficient, what the patient needs to know, and what risks the physician must disclose.

What is Tom Regan's comparison between the Willowbrook study and animal vivisection?

He argues that if it is wrong to experiment on disabled children, it is also wrong to experiment on animals with similar psychological complexity.

What is Don Marquis's argument against abortion?

Killing is wrong because it deprives a being of a valuable future of experiences and activities.

What is Judith Jarvis Thomson's violinist thought experiment?

It illustrates that having a right to life does not mean having a right to use another person's body.

What is the principle of potentiality?

It states that a fetus has the same right to life as an actual person because it is a potential person.

How does Bonnie Steinbock criticize the principle of potentiality?

She argues that a potential person is not an actual person and does not yet have rights.