Studied by 1 person
naturalistic observation method
method of research based on careful observation of behavior in natural settings
volunteer bias
when people who volunteer to participate in a study are unrepresentative of the population
variable
factor or measure that varies within and experiment or among individuals
statistics
branch of mathematics involving the tabulation, analysis, and interpretation of numerical data
evolutionary psychology
focuses on the role of evolutionary processes in shaping behavior
samples
subsets of a population that are representative of the target population
behaviorism
holds that psychology should limit itself to the study of overt, observable behavior; John Watson, Skinner and Pavlov; classical and operant conditioning, observation learning
case study method
in-depth study of one or more individuals
theory
formulation that accounts for understandable and predictable relationships among observed events or experimental findings
functionalism
focuses on the adaptive functions of behavior
double blind studies
both participants and experimenters are uninformed about who receives the active drug or the placebo
experimental method
manipulation of independent variables and measurement of their effects on dependent variables under controlled conditions
single blind studies
in which subjects are kept uninformed about receiving the experimental drug or a placebo
survey method
use of questionnaires or structured interviews to gather information about groups of people
population
all the individuals or organisms that constitute particular groups
placebo effect
positive outcome of an experiment resulting from a participant's positive expectations about the treatment
structured interview
interview in which a set of specific questions is asked in a particular order
Gestalt Psychology
holds that the brain structures our perceptions of the world in terms of meaningful patterns
replication
attempt to duplicate findings reported by others to determine whether they will occur again
correlation method
examines relationships between variables, which are expressed in the form of a correlation coefficient
social desirability bias
tendency to respond to questions in a socially desirable manner
structuralism
attempts to understand the structure of the mind by breaking it down into its components; Wudnt and Edward Titchener
positive psychology
emphasizes the study of human virtues and assets, rather than weaknesses and deficits
hypothesis
precise prediction about the outcomes of an experiment
humanistic perspective
focus on conscious experiences and humans as individuals
fluid intelligence
form of intelligence associated with the ability to think abstractly and flexibly in solving problems
animistic thinking
child's belief that inanimate objects have living qualities
symbolic representations
term referring to the use of words to represent objects and describe experiences
maturation
biological unfolding of the organism according to the underlying genetic code
identity crisis
stressful period of serious self-examination of issues relating to personal values and direction in life
adaptation
adjustment to function more effectively in meeting the demands they face in the environment
schema
mental framework for understanding or acting on the environment
irreversibility
inability to reverse the direction of a sequence of events to their starting point
object permanence
recognition that objects continue to exist even if they have disappeared from sight
role confusion
lack of direction or aimlessness with respect to one's role in life or public identity
zone of proximal development ZPD
range between children's present level of knowledge and their potential knowledge state after proper guidance
germinal stage
stage of prenatal development that spans the period from fertilization through implantation
adolescence
period of life beginning at puberty and ending with early adulthood
crystallized intelligence
form of intelligence associated with the use of knowledge or wisdom
emerging adulthood
period of psychosocial development during which the person makes the transition from adolescence to adulthood
assimilation
process of incorporating new objects or situations into existing schemas
egocentrism
tendency to see the world only from one's own perspective
centration
tendency to focus on only one aspect of a situation at a time
fetal stage
stage of prenatal development in which the fetus develops, lasting until birth
formal operations
level of full cognitive maturity, characterized by the ability to think in abstract terms
conservation
ability to recognize that the quantity of an object remains constant despite changes in appearance
puberty
stage of development at which individuals become physiologically capable of reproducing
attachment
enduring emotional bond that infants and older children form with their caregivers
Moro Reflex
inborn reflex where infants move as if attempting to grab hold of someone
embryonic stage
stage of prenatal development during which the major organ systems begin to form
confirmation bias
tendency to maintain allegiance to an initial hypothesis despite strong evidence to the contrary
availability heuristic
judging events as more likely to occur when information pertaining to them is easily remembered
conceptual expansion
expanding familiar concepts by applying them to new uses
language acquisition device
concept of an innate, prewired mechanism in the brain for children to acquire language naturally
intelligence
capacity to think and reason clearly and to act purposefully and effectively
grammar
set of rules governing how symbols in a language are used to form meaningful expressions
norms
standards used to compare an individual's performance on a test with the performance of others
natural concept
concept with poorly defined or fuzzy rules for membership
logical concept
concept with clearly defined rules for membership
problem solving
form of thinking focused on finding a solution to a particular problem
functional fixedness
tendency to perceive objects as limited to the customary functions they serve
algorithm
step-by-step set of rules that will always lead to a correct solution to a problem
mental set
tendency to rely on strategies that worked in similar situations in the past
thinking
process of representing and manipulating information in one's mind
decision making
form of problem solving where a course of action is selected from available alternatives
conceptual combinations
combinations of concepts into one concept, resulting in the creation of a novel idea
representativeness heuristic
making a judgment that assumes a given sample is representative of the larger population
divergent thinking
ability to conceive of new ways of viewing situations and new uses for familiar objects
convergent thinking
attempt to narrow down a range of alternatives to the correct answer to a problem
creativity
originality of thought associated with the development of new, workable products or solutions to problems
standardization
establishing norms for a test by testing large numbers of people as a standardization sample
linguistic relativity hypothesis
proposition that the language we use determines how we think and perceive the world
IQ or intelligence quotient
measure of intelligence based on performance on tests of mental abilities
reliability
stability of test scores over time
validity
degree to which a test measures what it’s purpose to measure
classical conditioning
process of learning by association, where different stimuli come to elicit the same response
conditioned response CR
acquired or learned response to a conditioned stimulus
extinction
gradual weakening and eventual disappearance of a conditioned response
spontaneous recovery
spontaneous return of a conditioned response following extinction
reconditioning
process of relearning a conditioned response following extinction
stimulus generalization
tendency for stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response
stimulus discrimination
differentiation of related stimuli from the conditioned stimulus, so the conditioned response is not elicited
conditioned emotional reaction CER
emotional response to a particular stimulus acquired through classical conditioning
law of effect
principle that the likelihood of response recurrence depends on the resulting satisfying or unpleasant effects
operant conditioning
process of learning where the probability of a response's repetition depends on its consequences
operant response
response that operates on the environment to produce certain consequences
reinforcer
stimulus or event that increases the probability that the response it follows will be repeated
positive reinforcement
strengthening of a response through the introduction of a stimulus after the response occurs
negative reinforcement
strengthening of a response through the removal of a stimulus after the response occurs
primary reinforcer
reinforcer that is naturally rewarding because it satisfies basic biological needs or drives
secondary reinforcer
learned reinforcer that develops its reinforcing properties because of its association with primary reinforcers
discriminative stimulus
cue that signals that reinforcement is available if the subject makes a particular response
shaping
process of learning that involves the reinforcement of increasingly closer approximations of the desired response
schedule of continuous reinforcement
system of dispensing a reinforcement each time a response is produced
schedule of partial reinforcement
system of reinforcement in which only a portion of responses is reinforced
escape learning
learning of behaviors that allow an organism to escape from an aversive stimulus
avoidance learning
learning of behaviors that allow an organism to avoid an aversive stimulus
punishment
introduction of an aversive stimulus or removal of a reinforcing stimulus after a response occurs
behavior modification B-mod
systematic application of learning principles to strengthen adaptive behavior and weaken maladaptive behavior
programmed instruction
breaking down of complex material into a series of steps mastered at the learners' pace
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