Advantages and Disadvantages of Microscopy Techniques 8

Advantages of confocal laser scanning optical microscopy

Colorful, 2D images of thin samples of living cells; view chromosomes during mitosis; overcomes fluorescence artifacts.

Advantages of cryo-SEM

Surfaces are presented in a more natural form than SEM (due to freezing).

Advantages of electron tomography

High resolution, 3D images of samples.

Advantages of fluorescence optical microscopy

Colorful, 2D images of thin samples of living cells; increased brightness.

Advantages of phase-contrast optical microscopes

Good resolution and contrast; can be used to observe thin samples of living cells - including their internal structures.

Benefits of stomach acid

Kill bacteria; denature proteins; pepsin function.

Causes of protein denaturation

Excess temperature, chemicals, pH changes, radiation.

Examples of asexual reproduction

Binary fission; budding; regeneration; parthenogenesis.

Examples of secondary messengers

cAMP; IP3; DAG; Ca2+.

Differences of CD8 T cells and NK cells

NK cells are innate Lymphocytes, so they react fast and non-specifically; CD8 cells are adaptive Lymphocytes, so they react specifically (and slower).

Examples of corticosteroids

Glucocorticoids (cortisol); mineralocorticoids (aldosterone).

Disadvantages of compound light microscopes

It is costly, and the extensive sample fixation/staining/dehydration kills the sample.

Disadvantages of SEM

It is costly, and the extensive sample preparation kills all living cells.

Disadvantages of TEM

It is costly, and the thick samples have a poor contrast, which means some samples may need to be fixed & stained (killed).

Disadvantages of electron tomography

It is costly, and the extensive sample preparation kills all living cells.

Disadvantages of confocal laser scanning optical microscopy

Reduced light intensity and longer illumination times than fluorescence optical microscopy.

Disadvantages of cryo-SEM

Fixation/staining/freezing kills the sample.

Disadvantages of phase-contrast optical microscopes

Fluorescence sometimes creates distortions (artifacts) that reduce the resolution around sample edges.

Examples of abiotic factors

Temperature, sunlight, water levels...

Examples of annelida

Earthworm, leech.

Examples of analogous structures

Shark fin v. penguin fin v. dolphin fin.

Examples of anamniotes

Fish and amphibians.

Examples of arthropoda (crustacea)

Lobster, crayfish, crab.

Examples of arthropoda (arachnida)

Spider and scorpion.

Examples of biotic factors

Plants, animals, microorganisms...

Examples of cellular processes that rely upon microfilaments

Amoeboid movement; cyclosis; cleavage furrow formation; muscle contraction.

Examples of body parts that have fibrous cartilage

Intervertebral discs and knee meniscus.

Examples of bryophytes

Mosses, hornworts, and liverworts.

Examples of echinodermata

Starfish, sea urchin, sea cucumber.

Examples of chordata

Vertebrates.

Examples of embryos that go through holoblastic cleavages

Humans, sea urchins, frogs.

meroblastic cleavages

Examples include birds, fish, reptiles.

long bones

Examples include femur, radius, ulna.

lymphocytes

Examples include B and T cells.

digestion

Chewing food with the teeth; churning or mixing of food in the stomach.

regeneration (fragmentation)

Examples include hydra and planaria flatworms.

mollusca

Examples include clam, snail, slug, squid, octopus, cephalopod, gastropod.

multipotent stem cells

Hematopoietic stem cells, which can divide into many blood cell types.

short bones

Examples include carpals of the wrist or tarsals of the ankle.

platyhelminthes

Examples include flatworms, trematoda, flukes, tapeworm, planaria.

pluripotent stem cells

Cells from the inner cell mass (embryonic stem cells).

vestigial structures

Examples include ostrich wings (can't fly) and the human appendix (can't digest cellulose like cows).

totipotent stem cells

Examples include zygote and blastomeres of the morula.

steroid classes secreted by the adrenal cortex

Examples include glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, androgenic steroids.

arthropoda (insecta)

Examples include ant, grasshopper.

factors that produce mutations

Examples include DNA polymerase errors, loss of DNA during recombination, transposons, chemical damage, and radiation.

echinodermata nervous systems

Key features include nerve ring and radial nerves.

mnemonics for epidermis layers

Come Lets Get Some Beers/Come Lets Go Sun Bathing.

effects of gibberellins

Examples include stem and shoot elongation; elimination of seed dormancy; flowering; fruit production; leaf/fruit death.

hypothalamic-releasing hormones

Examples include GnRH, TRH, CRH, GRH.

outer barriers of innate immunity

Examples include thick epidermis; dermis; hypodermis (subcutaneous); mucus membranes; sebaceous glands.

common features of animals

Examples include eukaryotic; diploid; multicellular; heterotrophic aerobes; usually motile; cilia/flagella.

structural features of long bones

Examples include epiphyses; diaphysis; a medullary cavity; metaphyses; epiphyseal growth plates.

specific effects of CCK

Slows gastric emptying; stimulates pancreas to release digestive enzymes; stimulates gallbladder to release bile.

prominent features of arachnid excretory systems

Examples include malpighian tubules and/or coxal glands.

respiratory system features of arachnida

Examples include trachea or book lungs.

respiratory system structures in crustacea

Some have gills.

levels of bundles in skeletal muscles

Muscle belly --> fascicles --> muscle fibers --> myofibrils.

similarities of CD8 T cells and NK cells

Both are lymphocytes that release perforin and granzymes.

strategies to reduce halo effect

Using phase plates to reduce the phase shift; use thinner samples.

Levels of bundles in skeletal muscles

muscle belly --> fascicles --> muscle fibers --> myofibrils

Similarities of CD8 T cells and NK cells

both are Lymphocytes (Let) that release perforin and granzymes

Strategies to reduce halo effect of phase-contrast optical microscopy

using phase plates to reduce the phase shift; use thinner samples

Common methods for DNA sequencing

dideoxy chain termination (Sanger sequencing) and next generation sequencing

Important photosystems for photosynthesis

photosystem I and II

Functions of gastrin

stimulates parietal cells to release gastric juice; stimulates chief cell secretions

Openings of the human digestive tract

mouth and anus

Types of biological interactions (as they relate to time)

short-term; long term

Types of digestion in humans

mechanical; chemical

Main phases of the cell cycle

mitosis, cytokinesis, interphase

Cyclical steps of PCR

denaturation; primer annealing; elongation

Components of a chromatography apparatus

sample; mobile phase; stationary phase

Germ layers from superficial to most deep

ectoderm; mesoderm; endoderm

Main functions of the large intestine

water absorption; mineral absorption; vitamin production and absorption

Types of mutations that can result in a point mutation

substitution; insertion; deletion

Methods by which bacteria can accomplish horizontal gene transfer

conjugation, transformation, transduction

Mechanisms the liver uses to maintain blood glucose levels

glycogenesis; glycogenolysis; gluconeogenesis

Sections of the small intestine (from closest to the stomach to furthest)

duodenum; jejunum; ileum

Phases of a twitch contraction

latent; contraction; relaxation

Stop codons

UAG, UAA, or UGA (they do not code for amino acids)

Zones created by apical meristem divisions

zone of division; zone of elongation; zone of maturation

Types of muscle

smooth; cardiac; skeletal

Varieties of carbohydrates

monosaccharides; disaccharides; polysaccharides

Main parts of the embryo of a seed

radicle; hypocotyl; plumule; epicotyl

Components of aerobic cellular respiration

glycolysis; pyruvate manipulations; the Krebs cycle; oxidative phosphorylation

Main processes that occur in the kidneys

filtration; reabsorption; secretion; excretion

G protein subunits

alpha, beta and gamma subunits

Possible bases of a RNA nucleotide

adenine, uracil, cytosine, guanine

Possible bases of a DNA nucleotide

adenine, thymine, cytosine, guanine

Columnar cells that secrete mucus

goblet cells

Common interactions between R-groups in tertiary structure

ionic bonding; hydrogen bonding; dipole-dipole interactions; London dispersion (van der Waal) forces; hydrophobic interactions; disulfide bonding

Cells contained in the myocardium

cardiomyocytes

Components of a phospholipid

a three-carbon glycerol backbone attached to 1 phosphate group and 2 fatty acid tails

Components of a flower

petals; stamen; carpel/pistil

Components of a triglyceride

three fatty acid chains attached to a glycerol backbone

Components of an intercalated disc

desmosomes and gap junctions

Components of lower respiratory tract

N/A

Components of plasma

N/A

water

A vital nutrient for all living organisms.

proteins

Large biomolecules made up of amino acids that perform various functions in the body.